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BROWN'S GRAMMAR IMPROVED. 
THE 

INSTITUTES 

• OF 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

METHODICALLY AREANGED ; 

WITH 

COPIOUS LANGUAGE LESSONS; 

ALSO 

A KEY TO THE EXAMPLES OE FALSE SYNTAX. 

DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, AND PRIVATE STUDENTS. 
BY 

GOOLD 'BROWK, 

AUTHOR OF THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. 



"Ale quis igitur tanquam parva fastidiat Grammatices elementa." — Quintilian. 



A NEW AND REVISED EDITION, 

WITH EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 

By HENRY KIDDLE, A.M., 

LATE SUPERINTENDENT OF COMMON SCHOOLS, NEW YORK CITT. 



NEW YORK : - X^ Op v 

WILLIAM WOOD & COMPANY, 

56 & 58 Lafayette Place. 
1883. 



TEiui 

ADVERTISEMENT. 



The excellence of Brown's Grammars, both as treatises and school manuals, has been 
very generally acknowledged ; but the system of instruction embodied therein ha3 been 
found to be at variance, in some important respects, with that most generally in use at 
the present time, and favored by the best educators. Experience has shewn that mere 
parsing, however familiar it may render the pupil with definitions and rules, by me- 
chanical repetition, does not fully attain the most important end of grammatical instruc- 
tion, to make the learner expert and accurate in the use of language, as well as intelligent 
in respect to its principles and rules. 

In the'present edition of these grammars, the more modern system of instruction has 
been introduced : copious exercises in construction and comj)osition have been inserted 
in connection with those of analysis and parsing, thus supplying a complete series of 
practical Language Lessons, and insuring to the student a thorough critical knowledge 
of his mother tongue. The carefully arranged exercises in correction, or False Syntax, 
inserted under each rule,— covering as they do the whole field of syntactical criticism, — 
will be found to contribute greatly to this result. 

The arbitrary method of presenting elaborate and concise definitions without any pre- 
vious exposition of the ideas on which they depend, has been modified by the insertion, 
where requisite, of carefully constructed development lessons, adapted to the grade of 
this work, so that nothing, either in the use of terms or the expression of thought, might 
anticipate the needed explanation. 

Numerous corrections and alterations have been made, but not such as to interfere 
essentially with the original system of grammar contained in these works, but with the 
exclusive object of adapting them to a more approved system of practical instruction. 
The improvement in the typography of this new edition will not fail to commend the books 
to general favor. 

With these alterations, the publishers hope that these works will be found more useful 
to the public, and will prove a more valuable aid to teachers in imparting instruction in 
this really important branch of education. 

New York, July 1, 1882. 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1856, by 

GOOLD brown, 

In the Clerk's office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 



Copyright, 
WILLIAM WOOD & COMPANY. 



Trow's 

Printing and Bookbinding Company, 

201-213 East Twelfth Street, 

New York. 



PREFACE. 



" Neque enim aut aliena vittiperare, aut nostra jactantius prcedicare, animus est." 

1. Language is the principal vehicle of thought ; and so numerous and important 
are the ends to which it is subservient, that it is difficult to conceive in what manner the 
affairs of human society could be conducted without it. Its utility, therefore, will ever 
entitle it to a considerable share of attention in civilized communities, and to an impor- 
tant place in all systems of education. For, whatever we may think in relation to its 
origin — whether we consider it a special gift from Heaven, or an acquisition of industry — 
a natural endowment, or an artificial invention,— certain it is, that, in the present state 
of things, our knowledge of it depends, in a great measure, if not entirely, on the volun- 
tary exercise of our faculties, and on the helps and opportunities afforded us. One may 
indeed acquire, by mere imitation, such a knowledge of words, as to enjoy the ordinary 
advantages of speech ; and he who is satisfied with the dialect he has so obtained, will 
find no occasion for treatises on grammar ; but he who is desirous either of relishing the 
beauties of literary composition, or of expressing his sentiments with propriety and ease, 
must make the principles of language his study. 

2. It is not the business of the grammarian to gice laio to language, but to teach it, 
agreeably to the best usage. The ultimate principle by which he must be governed, and 
with which his instructions must always accord, is that species of custom which critics 
denominate good use ; that is, present, reputable, general use. This principle, which 
is equally opposed to fantastic innovation, and to a pertinacious adherence to the quaint 
peculiarities of ancient usage, is the only proper standard of grammatical purity. Those 
rules and modes of speech, which are established by this authority, may be called the 
Institutes of Grammar. 

3. To embody, in a convenient form, the true principles of the English Language ; to 
express them in a simple and perspicuous style, adapted to the capacity of youth ; to il- 
lustrate them by appropriate examples and exercises ; and to give to the whole all possible 
advantage from method in the arrangement, are the objects of the following work. The 
author has not deviated much from the principles adopted in the most approved gram- 
mars already in use ; nor has he acted the part of a servile copyist. It was not his 
design to introduce novelties, but to form a practical digest of established rules. He has 
not labored to subvert the general system of grammar, received from time immemorial, 
but to improve upon it, in its present application to our tongue. 

4. That which is excellent, may not be perfect ; and amendment may be desirable, 
where subversion would be ruinous. Believing that no theory can better explain the 
principles of our language, and no contrivance afford greater facilities to the student, the 
writer has in general adopted those doctrines which are already best known ; and has 
contented himself with attempting little more than an improved method of inculcating 
them. The scope of his labors has been, to define, dispose, and exemplify those doctrines 
anew : and, with a scrupulous regard to the best usage, to offer, on that authority, some 
further contributions to the stock of grammatical knowledge. The errors of former 
grammarians he has been more studious to avoid than to expose ; and of their deficiencies 
the reader may judge, when he sees in what manner they are here supplied. 

5. This treatise being intended for general use, and adapted to all classes of learners, 
was designed to embrace in a small compass a complete course of English Grammar, dis- 
encumbered of every thing not calculated to convey direct information on the subject. 
Little regard has therefore been paid to gamsayers. Grammarians have ever disputed, 
and often with more acrimony than discretion. Those who have dealt most in philological 
controversy, have well illustrated the couplet of Denham : 

" The tree of knowledge, blasted by disputes, 
Produces sapless leaves instead of fruits." 

6. They who set aside the authority of custom, and judge everything to be ungram- 
matical which appears to them to be unphilosophical, render the whole ground forever 
disputable, and weary themselves in beating the air. So various have been the notions 
of this sort of critics, that it would be difficult to mention an opinion not found in some 
of their books. Amidst this rage for speculation on a subject purely practical, various 
attempts have been made to overthrow that system of instruction which long use has 



iV PREFACE. 

rendered venerable, and long experience proved to be useful. But it is manifestly much 
easier to raise even plausible objections against this system, than to invent another less 
objectionable. Such attempts have generally met the reception they deserved. Their 
history will give no encouragement to future innovators. 

7. While some have thus wasted their energies in eccentric flights, vainly supposing 
that the learning of ages would give place to their whimsical theories ; others, with more 
success, not better deserved, have multiplied grammars almost innumerably, by abridg- 
ing or modifying the books they had used in childhood. So that they who are at all 
acquainted with the origin and character of the various compends thus introduced into 
our schools, cannot but desire a work which shall deserve a more extensive and more 
permanent patronage, based upon better claims. For, as Lord Bacon observes, the num- 
ber of ill-written books is not be diminished by ceasing to write, but by writing others 
which, like Aaron's serpent, shall swallow up the spurious. 

8. The nature of the subject almost entirely precludes invention. The author has, 
however, aimed at that kind and degree of originality, which are to be commended in 
works of this sort ; and has borrowed no more from others than did the most learned and 
popular of his predecessors. And, though he has taken the liberty to think and write 
for himself, he trusts it will be evident that few have excelled him in diligence of re- 
search, or have followed more implicitly the dictates of that authority which gives law 
to language. 

9. All science is laid in the nature of things : and he only who seeks it there, can 
rightly guide others in the paths of knowledge. He alone can know whether his prede- 
cessors went right or wrong, who is capable of a judgment independent of theirs. But 
with what shameful servility have many false or faulty definitions and rules been copied, 
and copied from one grammar to another, as if authority had canonized their errors, or 
none had eyes to see them ! Whatsoever is dignified and fair, is also modest and reason- 
able ; but modesty does not consist in having no opinion of one's own, nor reason in 
following with blind partiality the footsteps of others. Grammar unsupported by 
authority is, indeed, mere fiction. But what apology is this, for that authorship which 
has produced so many grammars without originality ? Shall be who cannot write for 
himself, improve upon him who can ? It is not deference to merit, but impudent pre- 
tense, practicing on the credulity of ignorance ! Commonness alone exempts it from 
scrutiny, and the success it has is but the wages of its own worthlessness ! To read and 
be informed, is to make a proper use o£ books for the advancement of learning ; but to 
assume to be an author by editing mere commonplaces and stolen criticisms, is equally 
beneath the ambition of a scholar and the honesty of a man. 

10. Grammar bein^ a practical art, with the principles of which every intelligent 
person is more or less acquainted, it might be expected that a book written professedly 
on the subject should exhibit some evidence of its author's skill. But it would seem that 
a multitude of bad or indifferent writers have judged themselves qualified to teach the 
art of speaking and writing well ; so that correctness of language and neatness of style 
are as rarely to be found in grammars as in other books. There have been, however, 
several excellent scholars, who have thought it an object not unworthy of their talents, 
to prescribe and elucidate the principles of English Grammar. But these, for an obvious 
reason, have executed their designs with various degrees of success ; and even the most 
meritorious have left ample room for improvement, though some have evinced an ability 
which does honor to themselves, while it gives cause to regret their lack of an inducement 
to further labor. The mere grammarian can neither aspire to praise, nor stipulate for a 
reward ; and to those who were best qualified to write, the subject could offer no ade- 
quate motive for diligence. 

11. Having devoted many years to studies of this nature, and being conversant with 
most of the grammatical treatises already published, the author conceived that the 
objects above enumerated, might, perhaps, be better effected than they had been in any 
work within his knowledge. And he persuades himself that the improvements here 
offered are neither few nor inconsiderable. He does not mean, however, to depreciate 
the labors, or to detract from the merits, of those who have gone before him and taught 
with acknowledged skill. He has studiously endeavored to avail himself of all the light 
they have thrown upon the subject. For his own information, he has carefully perused 
more than two hundred English grammars, and has glanced over many others that were 
not worth reading. With this publication in view, he has also resorted to the original 
sources of grammatical knowledge, and has not only critically considered what he has 
seen and heard of our vernacular tongue, but has sought with some diligence the analogies 
of speech in the structure of several other languages. 

12. His progress in compiling this work has been slow, and not unattended with labor 
and difficulty. Amidst the contrarieties of opinion, that appear in the various treatises 
already before the public, and the perplexities inseparable from so complicated a subject, 
he has, after deliberate consideration, adopted those views and explanations which ap- 
peared to him the least liable to objection, and the most compatible with his ultimate 
object — the production of a practical school grammar. 

13. Ambitious of making not a large but an acceptable book, he has compressed into this 
volume the most essential parts of a mass of materials from which he could as easily have 



PKEFACE. V 

formed a folio. Whether the toil be compensated or not, is a matter of little consequence ; 
he has neither written for bread, nor built castles in the air. He is too well versed in the 
history of his theme, too well aware of the precarious fortune of authors, to indulge any 
confident anticipations of success ; yet he wili not deny that his hopes are large, being 
conscious of having cherished them with a liberality of feeling which cannot fear disap- 
pointment. In this temper he would invite the reader to a thorough perusal of the fol- 
lowing pages. A grammar should speak for itself. In a work of this nature, every word 
or tittle which does not recommend the performance to the understanding and taste of 
the skillful, is, so far as it goes, a certificate against it. Yet, if some small errors have 
escaped detection, let it be recollected that it is almost impossible to print with perfect 
accuracy a work of this size, in which so many little things should be observed, remem- 
bered, and made exactly to correspond. There is no human vigilance which multiplicity 
may not sometimes baffle, and minuteness sometimes elude. To most persons grammar 
seems a dry and difficult subject ; but there is a disposition of mind, to which what is 
arduous, is for that very reason alluring. The difficulties encountered in boyhood from 
the use of a miserable epitome, and the deep impression of a few mortifying blunders 
made in public, first gave the author a fondness for grammar ; circumstances having 
since favored this turn of his genius, he has voluntarily pursued the study, with an assi- 
duity which no man will ever imitate for the sake of pecuniary recompense. 

14. This work contains a full series of exercises adapted to its several parts, with 
notices of the manner in which they are to be used, according to the place assigned 
them. The examples of false syntax, placed under the rules, are to be corrected orally ; 
the four chapters of exercises adapted to tho four parts of the subject, are to be written 
out by the learner. In selecting examples for these exercises, the author has been 
studious to economize the learner's and the teacher's time, by admitting those only which 
were very short. He has, in general, reduced each example to a single line. And, in 
this manner, he has been able to present, in this small volume, a series of exercises, more 
various than are given in any other grammar, and nearly equal in number to all that 
are contained in Murray's two octavos. It is believed that a grammatical treatise at once 
so comprehensive and concise, has not before been offered to the public. 

15. The only successful method of teaching grammar, is, to cause the principal defini- 
tions and rules to be committed thoroughly to memory, that they may ever afterwarda.be 
readily applied. Oral instruction may smooth the way, and facilitate the labor of the 
learner ; but the notion of communicating a competent knowledge of grammar, without 
imposing this task, is disproved by universal experience. Nor will it avail anything for 
the student to rehearse definitions and rules of which he makes no practical application. 
In etymology and syntax, he should be alternately exercised in learning small portions of 
his book, and then applying them in parsing, till the whole is rendered familiar. To a 
good reader, the achievement will be neither great nor difficult ; and the exercise is well 
calculated to improve the memory, and strengthen all the faculties cf the mind. 

16. The mode of instruction here recommended is the result of long and successful ex- 
perience. There is nothing in it which any person of common abilities will find it 
difficult to understand or adopt. It is the plain didactic method of definition and ex- 
ample, rule and praxis, which no man who means to teach grammar well, will ever desert, 
with the hope of finding another more rational or more easy. The book itself will make 
any one a grammarian, who will take the trouble to observe and practice what it teaches ; 
and even if some instructors should not adopt the readiest and most efficient method of 
making their pupils familiar with its contents, they will not fail to instruct by it as effectu- 
ally as they can by any other. Whoever is acquainted with the grammar of our lan- 
guage, so as to have some tolerable skill in teaching it, will here find almost everything 
that is true in his own instructions, clearly embraced under its proper head, so as to be 
easy of reference. And perhaps there are few, however learned, who, on a perusal of 
the volume, would not be furnished with some important rules and facts which had not 
before occurred to their own observation. 

17. The greatest peculiarity of the method is, that it requires the pupil to speak or 
write a great deal, and the teacher very little. But both should constantly remember that 
grammar is the art of speaking and writing well ; an art which can no more be acquired 
without practice than that of dancing or swimming. And each should be careful to per- 
form his part handsomely — without drawling, omitting, stopping, hesitating, faltering, 
miscalling, reiterating, stuttering, hurrying, slurring, mouthing, misquoting, mispro- 
nouncing, or any of the thousand faults which render utterance disagreeable and inele- 
gant. It is the learner's diction that is to be improved ; and the Fystem will be found 
well calculated to effect that object, because it demands of him, not only to answer ques- 
tions on grammar, but also to make a prompt and practical application of what he has 
just learned. If the class be tolerable readers, it will not be necessary for the teacher to 
say much ; and, in general, he ought not to take up the time by so doing. He should, 
however, carefully superintend their rehearsals ; give the word to the next, when any one 
errs ; and order the exercise in snch a manner that either his own voice, or the example 
of his best scholars, may gradually correct the ill habits of the awkward, till all learn to 
recite with clearness, understanding well what they say, and making it intelligible to 
others. 



VI PREFACE. 

18. The exercise of parsing commences immediately after the first lesson of etymology, 
and is carried on progressively till it embraces all the doctrines that are applicable to it. 
If it be performed according to the order prescribed, it will soon make the student per- 
fectly familiar with all the primary definitions and rules of grammar. It requires just 
enough of thought to keep the mind attentive to what the lips are uttering ; while it ad- 
vances by such easy gradations and constant repetitions as leave the pupil utterly without 
excuse, if he does not know what to say. Being neither wholly extemporaneous nor 
wholly rehearsed by rote, it has more dignity than a school-boy's conversation, and more 
ease than a formal recitation, or declamation ; and is therefore an exercise well calculated 
to induce a habit of uniting correctness with fluency in ordinary speech — a species of elo- 
cution as valuable as any other. 

19. The best instruction is that which ultimately gives the greatest facility and skill 
in practice ; and grammar is best taught by that process which brings its doctrines most 
directly home to the habits as well as to the thoughts of the pupil — which the most ef- 
fectually conquers inattention, and leaves the deepest impress of shame upon blundering 
ignorance. In the whole range of school exercises, there is none of greater importance 
than that of parsing ; and yet perhaps there is none which is, in general, more defect- 
ively conducted. Scarcely less useful, as a means of instruction, is the practice of cor- 
recting false syntax orally, by regular and logical forms of argument ; nor does this 
appear to have been more ably directed toward the purposes of discipline. There is so 
much to be done, in order to effect what is desirable in the management of these things, 
and so little prospect that education will ever be generally raised to a just appreciation 
of that study which, more than all others, forms the mind to habits of correct thinking ; 
that, in reflecting upon the state of the science at the present time, and upon the means 
of its improvement, the author cannot but sympathize, in some degree, with the sadness 
of the learned Sanctius ; who tells us that he had '• always lamented, and often with 
tears, that while other branches of learning were excellently taught, grammar, which is 
the foundation of all others, lay so much neglected, and that for this neglect there seemed 
to be no adequate remedy." — Pre/, to Minerva. The grammatical use of language is in 
sweet alliance with the moral ; and a similar regret seems to have prompted the following 
exclamation of the Christian poet : 

" Sacred Interpreter of human thought, 
How few respect or use thee as they ought ! " — Cowper. 

20. No directions, either oral or written, can ever enable the heedless and the unthink- 
ing to speak or write well. That must indeed be an admirable book which can attract levity 
to sober reflection, teach thoughtlessness the true meaning of words, raise vulgarity from 
its fondness for low examples, awaken the spirit which attains to excellency of speech, 
and cause grammatical exercises to be skillfully managed, where teachers themselves are 
so often lamentably deficient in them. Yet something may be effected by means of a 
better book, if a better can be introduced. And what withstands ?— Whatever there is of 
ignorance or error in relation to the premises. And is it arrogant to say there is much ? 
Alas ! in regard to this, as well as to many a weightier matter, one may too truly affirm. 
Multa 7io?i su?it sicut multis videntur — Many things are not as they seem to many. Com- 
mon errors are apt to conceal themselves from the common mind ; and the appeal to rea- 
son and just authority is often frustrated, because a wrong head defies both. But apart 
from this, there are difficulties : multiplicity perplexes choice ; inconvenience attends 
change ; improvement requires effort ; conflicting theories demand examination : the 
principles of the science are un profitably disputed ; the end is often divorced from the 
means ; and much that belies the title has been published under the name. 

21. It is certain that the printed formularies most commonly furnished for the impor- 
tant exercises of parsing and correcting, are either so awkwardly written, or so negligently 
followed, as to. make grammar, in the mouths of our juvenile orators, little else than a 
crude and faltering jargon. Murray evidently intended that his book of exercises should 
be constantly used with his grammar ; but he made the examples in the former so dull 
and prolix, that few learners, if any, have ever gone through the series agreeably to his 
direction. The publishing of them in a separate volume has probably given rise to the 
absurd practice of endeavoring to teach his grammar without them. The forms of pars- 
ing and correcting which this author furnishes are also misplaced ; and when found by 
the learner, are of little use. They are so verbose, awkward, irregular, and deficient, that 
the pupil must be a dull boy, or utterly ignorant of grammar, if he cannot express the facts 
extemporaneously in better English. When we consider how exceedingly important it is 
that the business of a school should proceed without loss of time, and that, in the oral ex- 
ercises here spoken of, each pupil should go through his part promptly, clearly, correctly, 
and fully, we cannot think it a light objeciion that these forms, so often to be repeated, 
are badly written. Nor does the objection lie against this writer only : Ab uno disce 
om7ie8. But the reader may demand some illustrations. 

22. First — from his etymological parsing : i4 O Virtue ! how amiable thou art ! " Here 
his form for the word Virtue is — " Virtue is a common substantive of the neuter gender, 
of the third person, i tithe singular number, and the nominative case." It should have 
been — "Virtue is a common noun, personified proper, of the second person, singular num- 



PREFACE. Vll 

ber, feminine gender, and nominative case."' And then the definitions of all these things 
should have followed in regular numerical order. He gives the class of this noun wrong, 
for virtue addressed becomes an individual ; he gives the gender wrong, and in direct 
contradiction of what he says of the word, in his section on gender ; he gives the person 
wrong, as may be seen by the pronoun thou ; he repeats the definite article three times 
unnecessarily, and inserts two needless prepositions, making them different where the re- 
lation is precisely the same : and all this, in a sentence of two lines, to tell the properties 
of the noun Virtue 1 — But, in etymological parsing, the definitions explaining the proper- 
ties of the parts of speech ought to be regularly and rapidly rehearsed by the pupil, till all 
of them are perfectly familiar, and till he can discern, with the quickness of thought, 
what is true or false in the description of any word in any intelligible sentence. All these 
the author omits : and, on account of this omission, his whole method of etymological 
parsing is miserably deficient. 

23. Secondly — from his syntactical parsing: '■'■Vice degrades us." Here his form for 
the word Vice is — " Vice is a common substantive of the third person, in the singular num- 
ber, and the nominative case." Now, when the learner is told that this is the syntactical 
parsing of a noun, and the other the etymological, he will of course conclude, that to ad- 
vance from the etymology to the syntax of this part of speech, is merely to omit the gen- 
der— this being the only difference between the two forms. But even this difference had 
no other origin than the compiler's carelessness in preparing his octavo book of exercises 
— the gender being inserted in the duodecimo. And what then ? Is the syntactical pars- 
ing of a noun to be precisely the same as the etymological ? Never. But Murray, and 
all who admire and follow his work, are content to parse many words by halves — making 
a distinction, and yet often omitting, in both parts of the exercise, everything which con- 
stitutes the difference. He should here have said — ' ' Vice is a common noun of the third 
person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case ; and is the subject of de- 
grades ; according to the rule which says, ' A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a 
verb must be in the nominative case.' Because the meaning is— rice degrades." This is 
the whole description of the word, with its construction ; and to say less is to leave the 
matter unfinished. 

24. Thirdly — from his " mode of verbally correcting erroneous sentences: 'The man 
is prudent which speaks little. 1 This sentence, 1 ' says Murray, " is incorrect ; because 
which is a pronoun of the neuter gender, and does not agree in gender with its antecedent 
man, which is masculine. But a pronoun should agree with its antecedent in gender, 
etc., according to the fifth rule of syntax. Which should therefore be who, a relative 
pronoun, agreeing with its antecedent man ; and the sentence should stand thus : ' The 
man is prudent who speaks little. 1 " Again : "'After I visited Europe, I returned to 
America. 1 This sentence,' 1 '' says he, " is not correct, because the verb visited is in the im- 
perfect tense, and yet used here to express an action, not only past, but prior to the time 
i-ef erred to by the verb returned, to which it relates. By the thirteenth rule of syntax, 
when verbs are used that, in point of time, relate to each other, the order of time should 
be observed. The imperfect tense visited should therefore have been had visited, in the 
pluperfect tense, representing the action of visiting, not only as past, but also as prior to 
the time of returning. The sentence corrected icould stand thus: 'After I had visited 
Europe, I returned to America. 1 " These are the first two examples of Murray's verbal 
corrections, and the only ones retained by Alger in his improved, recopy-righted edition 
of Murray^ Exercises. Yet, in each of them, is the argumentation palpably false ! In 
the former, truly, which should be who ; but not because which is of the netiter gender ; 
but because the application of that relative to persons is now nearly obsolete. Can any 
grammarian forget that, in speaking of brute animals, male or female, we commonly use 
which, and never who ? But if which must needs be neuter, the world is wrong in this. 
As for the latter example, it is right as it stands, and the correction is, in some sort, tau- 
tological. The conjunctive adverb after makes one of the actions subsequent to the other, 
and gives to the visiting all the priority that is signified by the pluperfect tense. '•'■After 
I visited Europe," is equivalent to "When I had visited Europe." The whole argument is 
therefore void. 

25. These few brief illustrations, out of thousands that might be adduced in proof of 
the f aultiness of the common manuals, the author has reluctantly introduced, to show 
that, even in the most popular books, the grammar of our language has not been treated 
with that care and ability which its importance demands. It is hardly to be supposed 
that men unused to a teacher's duties can be qualified to compose such books as will most 
facilitate his labors. Practice is a better pilot than theory. And while, in respect to 
grammar, the evidences of failure are constantly inducing changes from one system to 
another, and almost daily giving birth to new expedients as constantly to end in the same 
disappointment ; perhaps the practical instructions of an experienced teacher, long and 
assiduously devoted to the study, may approve themselves to many, as seasonably supply- 
ing the aid and guidance which they require. 

26. From the doctrines of grammar novelty is rigidly excluded. They consist of de- 
tails to which taste can lend no charm and genius no embellishment. A writer may ex- 
press them with neatness and perspicuity — their importance alone can commend them to 
notice. Yet, in drawing his illustrations from the stores of literature, the grammarian 



Vlll PKEFACE. 

may select some gems of thought, which will fasten on the memory a worthy sentiment, 
or relieve the dullness of minute instruction. Such examples have been taken from vari- 
ous authors, and interspersed through the following pages. 

27. The moral effect of early lessons being a point of the utmost importance, it is espe- 
cially incumbent on all those who are endeavoring to confer the benefits of intellectual 
culture, to guard against the admission or the inculcation of any principle which may 
have an improper tendency, and be ultimately prejudicial to those whom tl"ey instruct. 
In preparing this treatise for publication, the author has been solicitous to avoid every- 
thing that could be offensive to the most delicate and scrupulous reader ; and, of the 
several thousands of quotations given, he trusts that the greater part will be considered 
valuable on account of the sentiments they contain. 

28. He has not thought it needful, in a work of this kind, to encumber his pages with 
a useless parade of names and references, or to distinguish very minutely what is copied 
and what is original. All strict definitions of the same thing are necessarily similar. The 
doctrines of the work are, for the most part, expressed in his own language and illustrated 
by that of others. Where authority was requisite, names have been inserted ; and in 
general also where there was room. In the doctrinal parts of the volume, not only quo- 
tations from others, but most examples made for the occasion, are marked with guillc- 
mets, to distinguish them from the main text ; while, to almost everything which is 
really taken from any other known writer, a name or reference is added. In the exercises 
for correction few references have been given ; because it is no credit to any author, to 
have written bad English. But the intelligent reader will recognize as quotations a large 
portion of the examples, and know from what works they are taken. To the school-boy 
this knowledge is neither important nor interesting. 

29. Many of the definitions and rules of grammar have so long been public property, 
and have been printed under so many names, that it is difficult, if not impossible, to 
know to whom they originally belonged. Of these, the author has freely availed himself, 
though seldom without some amendment; while he has carefully abstained from every- 
thing on which he supposed there could now be any individual claim. He has therefore 
fewer personal obligations to acknowledge, than most of those who are reputed to have 
written with sufficient originality on the subject. 

SO. In truth, not a line has here been copied with any view to save the labor of com- 
position ; for, not to compile an English grammar from others already extant, but to 
compose one more directly from the sources of the art, was the task which the writer 
proposed to himself. And though the theme is not one upon which a man may hope to 
write well with little reflection, it is true, that the parts of this treatise which have cost 
him the most labor, are those which " consist chiefly of materials selected from the writ- 
ings of others." These, however, are not the didactical portions of the book, but the 
proofs and examples ; which, according to the custom of the ancient grammarians, ought 
to be taken from other authors. But so much have the makers of our modern grammars 
been allowed to presume upon the respect and acquiescence of their readers, that the 
ancient exactness on this point would often appear pedantic. Many phrases and sen- 
tences either original or anonymous will therefore be found among the illustrations of 
the following work ; for it was not supposed that any reader would demand for every 
thing of this kind the authority of a great name. Anonymous examples are sufficient to 
elucidate principles, if not to establish them ; and elucidation is often the sole purpose 
for which an example is needed. 

31. The author is well aware that no writer on grammar has any right to propose 
himself as authority for what he teaches ; for every language, being the common prop- 
erty of all who use it, ought to be carefully guarded against any caprice of individuals, 
and especially against that which might attempt to impose erroneous or arbitrary defini- 
tions and rules. " Since the matter of which we are treating," says the philologist of 
Salamanca, "is to be verified, first by reason, and then by testimony and usage, none 
ought to wonder if we sometimes deviate from the track of great men ; for, with what- 
ever authority any grammarian may weigh with me, unless he shall have confirmed his 
assertions by reason, and also by examples, he shall win no confidence in respect to 
grammar. For, as Seneca says, Epistle 1)5, ' Grammarians are the guardians, not the 
authors, of language.'" — Minerva, Lib. i.. Cap. ii. Yet, as what is intuitively seen to 
be true or false, is already sufficiently proved or detected, many points in grammar need 
nothing more than to be clearly stated and illustrated ; nay, it would seem an injurious 
reflection on the understanding of the reader, to accumulate proofs of what cannot but 
be evident to all who speak the language. 

32. Among men of the same profession, there is an unavoidable rivalry, so far as they 
become competitors for the same prize ; but in competition there is nothing dishonorable, 
while excellence alone obtains distinction, and no advantage is sought by unfair means. 
It is evident that we ought to account him the best grammarian, who has the most com- 
pletely executed the worthiest design. But no worthy design can need a false apology ; 
and it is worse than idle to prevaricate. That is but a spurious modesty, which prompts 
a man to disclaim in one way what he assumes in another — or to underrate the duties of 
his office, that he may boast of having " done all that could reasonably be expected." 
Whoever professes to have improved the science of English grammar, must claim to know 



PREFACE. IX 

more of the matter than the generality of English grammarians ; and he who begins 
with saying that " little can be expected" from the office he assumes, must be wrongfully 
contradicted when he is held to have done much. Neither the ordinary power of speech, 
nor even the ability to write respectably on common topics, makes a man a critic among 
critics, or enables him to judge of literary merit. And. if, by virtue of these qualifica- 
tions alone, a man will become a grammarian or a connoisseur, he can hold the rank 
only by courtesy — a courtesy which is content to degrade the character, that his inferior 
pretensions may be accepted and honored under the name. 

33. By the force of a late popular example, still too widely influential, grammatical 
authorship has been reduced in the view of many, to little or nothing more than a mere 
serving-up of materials anonymously borrowed ; and, what is most remarkable, even for 
an indifferent performance of this low office, not only unnamed reviewers, but several 
writers of note, have not scrupled to bestow the highest praise of grammatical excellence I 
And thus the palm of superior skill in grammar, has been borne away by a pro/eased 
compiler ; who had so mean an opinion of what his theme required, as to deny it even 
the common courtesies of compilation. What marvel is it, that, under the wing of such 
authority, many writers have since sprung up, to improve upon this most happy design ; 
while all who were competent to the task, have been discouraged from attempting any- 
thing like a complete grammar of our language? What motive shall excite a man to 
long-continued diligence, where such notions prevail as give mastership no hope of pref- 
erence, and where the praise of his ingenuity and the reward of his labors must needs 
be inconsiderable, till some honored compiler usurp them both, and bring his "most use- 
ful matter" before the world under better auspices ? If the love of learning supply such 
a motive, who that has generously yielded to the impulse, will not now, like Johnson, 
feel himself reduced to an " humble drudge " — or, like Perizonius, apologize for the ap- 
parent folly of devoting his time to such a subject as grammar ? 

34. Since the first edition of this work, more than two hundred new compends, many 
of them professing to be abstracts of Murray with improvements, have been added to 
our list of English grammars. The author has examined about one hundred and fifty, 
and seen advertisements or notices of nearly half as many more. Being various in char- 
acter, they will of course be variously estimated ; but, so far as he can judge, they are, 
without exception, works of little or no real merit, and not likely to be much patronized 
or long preserved from oblivion. For which reason, he would have been inclined en- 
tirely to disregard the petty depredations which the writers of several of them have 
cjmmitted upon the following digest, were it not possible that by such a frittering-away 
of his work, he himself might one day seem to some to have copied that from others 
which was first taken from him. Trusting to make it manifest to men of learning, that 
in the production of these Institutes far more has been done for the grammar of our lan- 
guage, than any single hand had before achieved within the limits of a school-book, and 
that with perfect fairness towards other writers ; he cannot but feel a wish that the in- 
tegrity of his text shoiild be preserved, whatever else may befall : and that the multitude 
of scribblers who judge it so needful to remodel Murray's defective compilation, would 
forbear to publish under his name or their own what they find only in the following 
pages. 

35. The mere rivalry of their authorship is no subject of concern ; but it is enough for 
any ingenuous man to have toiled for years in solitude to complete a work of public utility, 
without entering a warfare for life to defend and preserve it. Accidental coincidences in 
books are unfrequent, and not often such as to excite the suspicion of the most sensitive. 
But, though the criteria of plagiarism are neither obscure nor disputable, it is not easy, 
in this beaten track of literature, for persons of little reading to know what is, or is not, 
original. Dates must be accurately observed. Many things must be minutely com- 
pared. And who will undertake such a task, but he that is personally interested ? Of 
the thousands who are forced into the paths of learning, few ever care to know, by what 
pioneer, or with what labor, their way was cast up for them. And even of those who are 
honestly engaged in teaching, not many are adequate judges of the comparative merits 
of the great number of books on this subject. The common notions of mankind conform 
more easily to fashion than to truth ; and, even of some things within their reach, the 
majority seem content to take their opinions upon trust. Hence, it is vain to expect that 
that which is intrinsically best, will be everywhere preferred ; or that which is merito- 
riously elaborate, adequately appreciated. But common sense might dictate that learning 
is not encouraged or respected by those who, for the making of books, prefer a pair of 
scissors to the pen. 

£6. The real history of grammar is little known ; and many erroneous impressions are 
entertained concerning it : because the story of the system most generally received, has 
never been fully told ; and that of a multitude now gone to oblivion, was never worth 
telling. In the distribution of grammatical fame, which has chiefly been made by the 
hand of interest, we have had a strange illustration of the saying : " Unto every one 
that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance ; but from him that hath not, 
shall be taken away even that which he hath." Some whom fortune has made popular, 
have been greatly overrated, if learning and talents are to be taken into the account ; 
since it is manifest, that with no extraordinary claims to either, they have taken the 



X PREFACE. 

very foremost rank among grammarians, and thrown the learning and talents of other* 
into the shade, or made them tributary to their own success and popularity. 

37. Few writers on grammar have been more noted than Lily and Murray. A law 
was made in England by Henry the Eighth, commanding Lily's grammar " only every- 
where to be taught, for the use of learners and for the hurt in changing of schoole- 
maisters." — Pre/, to Lily, p. xiv. Being long kept in force by means of a special inquiry 
directed to be made by the bishops at their stated visitations, this law, for three hundred 
years, imposed the book on all the established schools of the realm. Yet it is certain, 
that about one-half of what has thus gone under the namo of Lily, (" because," says one 
of the patentees, "he had go considerable a hand in the composition,") was written by 
Dr. Colet, by Erasmus, or by others who improved the work after Lily's death. (See 
Ward's Preface to the book, 1793.) And of the other half, history incidentally tells, that 
neither the scheme nor the text was original. The Printer's Grammar, London, 1787. 
speaking of the art of type-founding says : " The Italians in a short time brought it to 
that perfection, that in the beginning of the year 1474, they cast a letter not much inferior 
to the best types of the present age ; as may be seen in a Latin Grammar written by Omni- 
bonus Leonicenus, and printed at Padua on January 14, 1474 ; from lohom our gramma- 
rian. Lily, has taken the entire scheme of his grammar, and transcribed the greatest part 
thereof, without paying any regard to the memory of this author.' 1 '' The historian then 
proceeds to speak about types. See also the History of Printing, Svo, London, 1770. 
This is the grammar which bears upon its title page : " Quarn solam Jiegia Majestas in 
omnibus scholis docendam prcecipit.'" 

38. Murray was an intelligent and very worthy man, to whose various labors in the 
compilation of books our schools are under many obligations. But in original thought 
and critical skill he fell far below most of " the authors to whom," he confesses, " tSe 
grammatical part of his compilation is ;j;vncip«Wy indebted for its materials ; namely, 
Harris, Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, Coote, Blair, and Camp- 
bell."' — Tntrod. to Gram., p. 7. It is certain and evident that he entered upon his task 
with a very insufficient preparation. His biography informs us, that, "Grammar did 
not particularly engage his attention, until a short time before the publication of his first 
work on that subject ; " that, " His grammar, as it appeared in the first edition, waa 
completed in rather less than a year — though he had an intervening illness, which for 
several weeks stopped the progress of the work ; " and that, " the Exercises and Key were 
also composed in about a year." — Life of L. Hurray, p. 1S8. From the very first sentence 
of his book, it appears that he entertained but a low and most erroneous idea of the duties 
of that sort of character in which he was about to come before the public. He improperly 
imagined, as many others have done, that " little can be expected " from a modern gram- 
marian, or (as he chose to express it) "from a neio compilation, besides a careful selec- 
tion of the most useful matter, and some degree of improvement in the mode of adapting it 
to the understanding, and the gradual progress of learners." — Tntrod. to Gram., 8vo, p. 5 ; 
12mo, p. 3. As if, to be master of his own art — to think and write well himself, were no part 
of a grammarian's business ! And again, as if the jewels of scholarship, thus carefully se- 
lected, could need a burnish or a foil from other hands than those which fashioned them ! 

39. Murray's general idea of the doctrines of grammar was judicious. He attempted 
no broad innovation on what had been previously taught : for he had neither the vanity 
to suppose he could give currency to novelties, nor the folly to waste his time in labors 
utterly nugatory. By turning his own abilities to their best account, he seems to have 
done much to promote and facilitate the ntudy of our language. But his notion of gram- 
matical authorship, cuts off from it all pretense to literary merit, for the sake of doing 
good ; and, taken in any other sense than as a forced apology for his own assumptions, 
his language on this point is highly injurious toward the very authors whom he copied. 
To justify himself, he ungenerously places them, in common with others, under a degrad- 
ing necessity which no able grammarian ever felt, and which every man of genius or 
learning must repudiate. If none of our older grammars disprove his assertion, it is time 
to have a new one that will ; for, to expect the perfection of grammar from him who 
cannot treat the subject in a style at once original and pure is absurd. He says, " The 
greater part of an English grammar must necessarily be a compilation ; " and adds, with 
reference to his own, "originality belongs to but a small portion of it. This I have 
acknowledged ; and I trust this acknoioledgement will protect me from all attacks, 
grounded on any supposed unjust and irregular assumptions." — Letter, 1811. The 
acknowledgment on which he thus relies does not appear to have been made till hi3 
grammar had gone through several editions. It was then inserted as follows: "In a 
work which professes to be a compilation, and which, from the nature and design of it, 
must consist chiefly of materials selected from the writings of others, it is scarcely tuces- 
sary to apologize for the use which the compiler has made of his predecessor's labors, or 
for omitting to insert their names." — Tntrod. to Gram., Svo, p. 7; 19mo, p. 4. 

40. For the nature and design of a book, whatever they may be, the author alone ifl 
answerable; but the nature and design of grammar, are no less repugnant to the strain 
of this apology, than to the vast number of errors and defects which were overlooked by 
Murray in his work of compilation. There is no pare of the volume more accurate, than 
that which he literally copied from Lowth. To the Short Introduction alone he was in- 



PREFACE. XI 

debted for more than a hundred and twenty paragraphs ; and even in these there are 
many things obviously erroneous. Many of the best practical notes were taken from 
Priestley ; yet it was he, at whose doctrines were pointed most of those " positions and dis- 
cussions," which alone the author claims as original. To some, however, his own alterations 
may have given rise ; for, where he " persuades himself he is not destitute of originality," 
he is often arguing against the text of his own earlier editions. Webster's well-known 
complaints of Murray's unfairness, had a far better cause than requital ; for there waa 
no generosity in ascribing them to peevishness, though the passages in question were not 
worth copying. On perspicuity and accuracy, about sixty pages were extracted from Blair ; 
and it requires no great critical acumen to discover, that they are miserably deficient in 
both. On the law of language, there are fifteen pages from Campbell : which, with a few 
exceptions, are well written. The rules for spelling are the same as Walker's ; the third 
one, however, is a gross blunder ; and the fourth, a needless repetition. Were this a 
place for minute criticism, blemishes almost innumerable might be pointed out. It might 
easily be shown that almost every rule laid down in the book for the observance of the 
learner, was repeatedly violated by the hand of the master. Nor is there among all those 
who have since abridged or modified the work, an abler grammarian than he who com- 
piled it. Who will pretend that Flint, Alden, Comly, Jaudon, Russell, Bacon, Lyon, Miller, 
Alger, Maltby, Ingersoll, Fisk, Greenleaf, Merchant, Kirkham, Cooper, R. G. Greene, 
"Woodward, Smith, or Frost, has exhibited greater skill ? It is curious to observe, how 
frequently a grammatical blunder committed by Murray, or some one of his predecessors, 
has escaped the notice of all these, as well as of many others who have found it easier to 
copy him than to write for themselves. 

41. But Murray's grammatical works, being at once extolled in the reviews, and made 
common stock in trade, — being published, both in England and in America, by book- 
sellers of the most extensive correspondence, and highly commended even by those who 
were most interested in the sale of them, — have been eminently successful with the pub- 
lic ; and, in the opinion of the world, success is the strongest proof of merit. Nor has 
the force of this argument been overlooked by those who have written in aid of his popu- 
larity. It is the strong point in most of the commendations which have been bestowed 
upon Murray as a grammarian. A recent eulogist computes, that, " at least five millions 
of copies of his vai-ious school-books have been printed ; " particularly commends him for 
his " candor and liberality toward rival authors; " avers that, "he went on, examining 
and correcting his grammar, through all its forty editions, till he brought it to a degree 
of perfection which will render it as permanent as the English language itself ; " censures 
(and not without reason) the " presumption " of those "superficial critics" who have 
attempted to amend the work, and usurp his honors; and, regarding the compiler's con- 
fession of his indebtedness to others, but as a mark of "his exemplary diffidence of his 
own merits," adds (in very bad English), " Perhaps there never was an author whose 
euccess and fame were more unexpected by himself, than Lindley Murray." — The Friend, 
Vol. iii., p. 33. 

42. In a New York edition of Murray's Grammar, printed in 1812, there was inserted 
a "Caution to the Public," by Collins & Co., his American correspondents and publishers, 
in which are set forth the unparalleled success and merit of the work, " as it came in purity 
from the pen of the author ; " with an earnest remonstrance against the several revised 
editions which had appeared at Boston, Philadelphia, and other places, and against the 
unwarrantable liberties taken by American teachers, in altering the work, under pre- 
tense of improving it. In this article it is stated, "that the whole of these mutilated edi- 
tions have been seen and examined by Lindley Murray himself, and that they have met 
with his decided disapprobation. Every rational mind," continue these gentlemen, 
"will agree with him, that, 'the rights of living authors, and the interests of science and 
literature, demanded the abolition of this ungenerous practice?'*'' Here, then, we have 
the opinion and feeling of Murray himself upon this tender point of right. Here we see 
the tables turned, and other men judging it " scarcely necessary to apologize for the use 
which they have made of their predecessors' labors." 

_ 43. It is not intended by the introduction of these notices to impute to Murray any- 
thing more or less than what his own words plainly imply; except tiose inaccuracies and 
deficiencies which still disgrace his work as a literary performance, and which of course 
he did not discover. He himself knew that he had not brought the book to such perfec- 
tion as has been ascribed to it ; for, by way of apology for his frequent alterations, he 
says, "Works of this nature admit of repeated improvements, and are, perhaps, never 
complete." But it is due to truth to correct erroneous impressions ; and, in order to ob- 
tain from some an impartial examination of the following pages, it seems necessary first 
to convince them that it is possible to compose a better grammar than Murray's, without 
being particularly indebted to him. If this treatise is not such, a great deal of time has 
been thrown away upon a useless project ; and if it is, the achievement is no fit subject 
for either pride or envy. It differs from his, and from every grammar based upon his, as 
a new map, drawn from actual and minute surveys, differs from an old one, compiled 
chiefly from others still older and confessedly still more imperfect. The region and the 
scope are essentially the same ; the tracing and the coloring are more original ; ajid (if 
the reader can pardon the suggestion) perhaps more accurate and vivid. 



Xll PREFACE. 

44. He who makea a new grammar does nothing for the advancement of learning un- 
less his performance excel all earlier ones designed for the same purpose ; and nothing for 
his own honor unless such excellence result from the exercise of his own ingenuity and 
taste. A good style naturally commends itself to every reader — even to him who cannot 
tell why it is worthy of preference. Hence there is reason to believe that the true princi- 
ples of practical grammar, deduced from custom and sanctioned by time, will never be 
generally superseded by anything which individual caprice may substitute. In the repub- 
lic of letters there will always be some who can distinguish merit ; and it is impossible 
that these should ever be converted to any whimsical theory of language, which goes to 
make void the learning of past ages. There will always be some who can discern the dif- 
ference between originality of style and innovation in doctrine — between a due regard to 
the opinions of others and an actual usurpation of their text ; and it is incredible that 
these should ever be satisfied with any mere compilation of grammar, or with any such 
authorship as either confesses or betrays the writer's own incompetence. For it is not 
true that "an English grammar must necessarily be," in any considerable degree, if at all, 
" a compilation : " nay, on such a theme, and in " the grammatical part" of the work, all 
compilation, beyond a fair use of authorities regularly quoted, or of materials either volun- 
tarily furnished or free to all, most unavoidably implies — not conscious "ability," gener- 
ously doing honor to rival merit — nor "exemplary diffidence" modestly veiling its own — 
but inadequate skill and inferior talents bribing the public by the spoils of genius, and 
seeking precedence by snch means as not even the purest desire of doing good can justify. 

45. All praise of excellence must needs be comparative, because the thing itself is so. 
To excel in grammar is but to know better than others wherein grammatical excellence 
consists. Hence there is no fixed point of perfection beyond which such learning may not 
be carried. The limit to improvement is not so much in the nature of the subject as in 
the powers of the mind, and in the inducements to exert them upon a theme so humble 
and so uninviting. Dr. Johnson suggests in his masterly preface, "that a whole life 
cannot be spent upon syntax and etymology, and that ev»n a whole life would not be suf- 
ficient." Who then will suppose, in the face of such facts and confessions as have been 
exhibited, that either in the faulty publications of Murray, or among the various modifi- 
cations of them by other hands, we have any such work as deserves to be made a perma- 
nent standard of instruction in English grammar ? The author of this treatise will not 
pr. tend that it is perfect: though he has bestowed upon it no inconsiderable pains, that 
the narrow limits to which it must needs be confined, might be filled up to the utmost ad- 
vantage of the learner, as well as to the best direction and greatest relief of the teacher. 

46. A Key to the Oral Exercises in False Syntax is inserted in the Grammar, that the 
pupil may be enabled fully to prepare himself for that kind of class recitations. Being 
acquainted with the rule, and having seen the correction, he may be expected to state the 
error and the reason for the change, without embarrassment or delay. It is the opinion 
of some teachers that no Key in aid of the student should be givf n. Accordingly many 
grammars, not destitute of exercises in false syntax, are published without either formules 
of correction, or a Key to show the right reading. But English grammar, in any exten- 
sive exhibition of it, is a study dry and difficult enough for the young, when we have used 
out best endeavors to free it from all obscurities and doubts. The author thinks he 
has learned from experience, that, with explicit help of this sort, most pupils will not 
only gain more knowledge of the art in a given time, but in the end find their acquisitions 
more satisfactory and more permanent. 

47. A separate Key to the Exercises for Writing is publi.-hed for the convenience of 
teachers and private learners. For an obvious reason this Key should not be put into the 
hands of the school boy. Being a distinct volume, it may be had, bound by itself or with 
the Grammar. Those "teachers who desire to exercise their pupils orally in correcting 
false grammar without a Key, can at any time make use of this series of examples for such 
purpose. 

48. From the first edition of the following treatise there was made by the author, for 
the use of young learners, a brief abstract, entitled, "The First Lines of English Gram- 
mar ; " in which are embraced all the leading doctrines of the original work, with a new 
series of examples for their application in parsing. Much that is important in the gram- 
mar of the language was necessarily excluded from this epitome ; nor was it designed for 
those who can learn a larger book without wearing it out. But economy, as well as con- 
venience, demands small and cheap treatises for children; and thore teachers who ap- 
prove of this system of grammatical instruction will find many reasons for preferring the 
First Lines to any other compend, as an introduction to the study of these Institutes. 

49. Having undertaken and prosecuted this work, with the hoj>e of facilitating the 
study of the English Language, and thus promoting the improvement of the young, the 
author now presents his finished labors to the candor and discernment of those to whom 
is committed the important business of instruction. How far he has succeeded in the exe- 
cution of his design is willingly left to the just decision of those who are qualified to 
judge. 

GOOLD BROWN. 
Revised, Lynn, Mass., 1SS4. 



POSTSCRIPT TO THE PREFACE. 



The school-book now pretty well-known as " Brown's Institutes of English Gram- 
mar," was my first attempt at authorship in the character of a grammarian ; and, satis- 
factory as it has been to the many thousands who have used it, it has nevertheless, like 
all other not incorrigible attempts in this line, been found susceptible of sundry impor- 
tant emendations. So that I must believe with Murray, that, " Works of this nature 
admit of repeated improvements ; and are, perhaps, never complete." It cannot, how- 
ever, be said in my favor, as it has been in commendation of this author, that, "He went 
on examining and correcting his grammar through all its forty editions, till he brought 
it to the utmost degree of perfection ; n but something has been done in this way, three 
or four of the early editions of the Institutes having been severally retouched and im- 
proved by the author's hand ; and now, an undiminished demand for the work having 
continued to spread its reputation, I have at length the satisfaction to have endeavored 
yet once again to render it still more worthy of the public favor. 

The time which has elapsed since the author first published this work, has been 
mainly spent in labors and studies tending very directly to enlarge and mature his 
knowledge of English Grammar ; and, especially, to better his acquaintance with the 
great variety of books and essays which have been written upon it. The principal result 
of these labors and studies has been given to the world in his large work entitled " The 
Grammar of EngUsh Grammars." To conform the future editions of these Institutes 
more nearly to the text of this large Grammar, to supply some deficiencies which have 
been thought to lessen the comparative value of the former work, to divide the book 
more systematically into chapters and subdivisions, and to correct a few typographical 
errors which had crept in, were the objects contemplated in the revision which has now 
been effected. 

In making these improvements, I have not forgotten that alterations in a popular 
class-book are, on some accounts, exceedingly undesirable. The writer who ventures at 
all upon them, is ever liable to subject his patrons and best friends to more or less incon- 
venience ; and for this he should be very sure of having presented, in every instance, an 
ample compensation. It is believed that the changes which the present revision exhibits, 
though they are neither few nor unimportant, need not prevent, in schools, a concurrent 
use of old editions with the new, till the former may be sufficiently worn out. What has 
been added or changed, will therefore lack no justification; and the author will rest, 
with sufficient assurance, in the hope that the intelligent patronage which has hitherto 
been giving more and more publicity to his earliest teachings, will find decidedly, and 
without mistake, in this improved form of the work, the best common school Grammar 
now extant. 

GOOLD BEOWN. 

Lynn, Mass., 1855. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



pieta 
Preface, . iii-xr 

INTRODUCTORY. 

Language, 17 

PART I. -ORTHOGRAPHY. 

I. Letters, 19 

Names of the Letters, 20 ; Classes of the Letters, 21 ; Classes 
of the Consonants, 21 ; Powers of the Letters, 22 ; Forms 
of the Letters, 21 ; Rules for the Use of Capitals, 21. 

II. Syllables, 25 

Diphthongs and Triphthongs, 20 ; Syllabication, 20. 

III. Words, 27 

Species and Figure of Words, 27 ; Rules for the Figure of 
Words, 27. 

IV. Spelling, 28 

Rules for Spelling, 28. 

Questions for Review, 30 

Exercises for Writing, 32 

PART II.— ETYMOLOGY. 

I. The Sentence, .39 

Exercises, 40. 
II. The Parts of Speech, 41 

Definitions of Terms, 42 ; Exercises in Parsing (Praxis I.), 43. 

III. Articles, 44 

Classes, 44 ; Exercises for Writing, 45. 

IV. Nouns, . 45 

Classes, 40 ; Modifications — Persons, 47 ; Numbers, 48 ; Gen- 
ders, 51 ; Cases, 52 ; Declension of Nouns, 53. 

V. Analysis, Parsing, and Construction, 54 

Exercises in Analysis and Parsing (Praxis II.), 50 ; Construc- 
tion and Composition, 57. 

VI. Adjectives, 59 

Classes, 59 ; Modifications — Comparison, Gl. 

VII. Pronouns, 64 

Classes, 04 ; Modifications, 05 ; Declension of Pronouns, 00 ; 
Compound Personals, 07; Relatives and Interrogatives, 07 ; 
Compound Relatives, 08. 



CONTENTS. 



VIII. Analysis, Parsing, and Construction, 69 

Exercises in Analysis and Parsing (Praxis III.), 70 ; Exer- 
cises in Construction, 71 ; Composition, 72. 

IX. Verbs, 73 

Classes, 73 ; Modifications— Moods, 75 ; Tenses, 76 ; Inflec- 
tions — Persons and Numbers, 78; ( onjugation of Verbs, 
80 ; Irregular Verbs, 9? ; Defective Verbs, 103. 

X. Participles, 105 

Classes, 105. 

XL Adverbs, 108 

Classes, 108 ; Conjunctive Adverbs, 110 ; Modifications, 111. 

XII. Conjunctions, 112 

Classes, 112. 

XIH. Prepositions, 112 

XIV. Interjections, 114 

XV. Analysis, Parsing, and Construction, 115 

Phrases, 115 ; Exercises in Analysis and Parsing (Praxis IV), 
118 ; Exercises in Construction, 119. 
Questions for Review, 120 

PART III.— SYNTAX. 

Introductory Definitions, . 126 

Rules of Syntax, 127 

I. Relation, 130 

Pule I., Articles, 130 ; Rule II., Adjectives, 136; Rule HE., 
Adverbs, 144 ; Rule IV, Participles, 148 ; Rule V, Prepo- 
sitions, 153. 

II. Agreement, 157 

Rule VI., Nominatives, 157; Rule VII., Apposition, 158; 
Rule VIII. , Verb and Subject, 161 ; Rule IX., Collective 
Nominative, 166 ; Rule X., Two or more Nominatives, 167 ; 
Rule XI, Singular Nominatives, 170; Rule XII., Verbs 
Connected, 173 ; Rule XIII., Subject and Attribute, 175 ; 
Rule XIV., Pronoun and Antecedent, 178 ; Rule XV., Col- 
lective Antecedents, 1 88 ; Rule XVI. , Connected Anteced- 
ents, 189; Rule XVII., Connected Antecedents, 191. 

III. Government, 192 

Rule XVIII, Possessives, 192; Rule XIX., Object of the 
Verb, 196 ; Rule XX., Object of the Preposition, 198 ; Rule 
XXI., Infinitives, 200. 

IV. Miscellaneous Rules, 203 

Rule XXII., Infinitives. 203: Rule XXIIX, Subjunctive 
Mood, 204; Rule XXIV, Independent Case, 206; Rule 
XXV, Conjunctions, 208 ; Rule XXVI., Interjections, 211. 

Promiscuous Examples of False Syntax, 212. 



CONTENTS. 



V. Arrangement, 

Rules and Illustrations, 216 ; General Rule, 217. 
VI. Exercises in Analysis, Parsing, and Construe. 

tion (Praxis V.), 

Phrases, 220 ; Clauses, 225 ; Compound Sentences, 232 ; Mis- 
cellaneous sentences, 235 ; Sentences of Peculiar or Irregu- 
lar Construction, 243. 
Questions for Review, 



PAGE 

210 



219 



248 



PART IV.-PROSODY. 

I. Punctuation, 

I. The Comma, 252 ; II. The Semicolon, 257 ; HI. The Colon, 
258 ; IV. The Period, 258 ; V. The Dash, 259 ; VI. The 
Eroteme. 260 ; VII. The Ecphoneme, 261 ; VIII. The 
Curves, 261 ; IX. Other Marks, 262. 

Exercises in Punctuation, 

II. Utterance, 

Pronunciation, 274 ; Elocution, 275. 

III. Figures, 

Figures of Orthography, 276 ; Figures of Etymology, 277 ; 
Figures of Syntax, 278 ; Figures of Rhetoric, 279. 
Exercises in Figures (Praxis VI.), . 

IV. Versification, 

Quantity, 290 ; Rhyme, 291 ; Poetic Feet, 291 ; Scanning, 
292. 



Exercises in Scanning, 
Questions for Review, 



APPENDIX I.— COMPOSITION. 



Preliminary Exercises, 
Original Composition, . 

Letter-Writing, 

Heading, 306 ; Address, 307 ; 
tion, 308. 



Body, 308 ; Closing, 308 ; Superscrip- 



APPENDIX II.— QUALITIES OF STYLE. 



I. Purity, 

II. Propriety, 

III. Precision, 

IV. Perspicuity, 
V. Unity, . 

VI. Strength, 



APPENDIX 

Poetical Peculiarities, . 



-POETIC DICTION. 



APPENDIX IV. 

Key to Examples of False Syntax, . 



251 



274 
276 



283 
290 



297 
301 



304 
305 

306 



311 

312 
312 
313 
313 
314 



315 



319 



INTRODUCTORY. 



LANGUAGE. 

We can think of any object which we have seen— a tree, for example 
■ — so as to see it in the mind, like an image or picture. This mental 
image or picture is called an idea of the tree. The word tree enables 
us to express the idea, either in speaking or writing. Words serve to 
bring to the mind the ideas of things previously observed. Thus we 
may think of various things, and recall to our minds the ideas of them 
by such words as the following : — 

A horse. 
A white horse. 
A soldier on horseback. 
A lady riding a black horse. 
A horse running away with a carriage. 

In a similar manner may be brought to the mind the ideas of things 
heard, smelt, tasted, or felt. Thus : — 

Thunder. — The thunder peals. 

A rose. —The rose has a sweet smell. 

An orange. — The orange has a sweet and acid taste. 

Velvet. — Velvet is soft and smooth to the touch. 

When we try to think of these things, we find that, although we can 
seem to hear, smell, taste, or feel them, we cannot do this so clearly as 
we can see in the mind a tree, a horse, or other object of sight. Hence 
we say, the ideas of things seen are clearer than those obtained through 
any of the other senses. 

In thinking we combine ideas in various ways. Thus : — 

The bird builds its nest in the tree. 

Here we have several ideas combined in a single thought : — of the 
bird, of building, of a nest, of a tree ; and these are related to each other 
in various ways : — the bird builds ; the nest is built ; the nest is in the 
tree. There are, thus, four ideas of things, and several ideas of their 
relations one to another. 



18 LANGUAGE. 

We cannot think without constantly using many ideas ; and we cannot 
think clearly or communicate our thoughts to other persons without 
using words to represent those ideas. These words joined together in 
the right way make language. 

Language is the expression of our thoughts in speak- 
ing or in writing. 

There are two kinds of language : spoken language and 
written language. 

Obs. 1. — LANC4UAGE, in the primitive sense of the term, embraced only 
vocal expression, or human speech uttered by the mouth ; but, after let- 
ters were invented to represent articulate sounds, language became two- 
fold, spoken and written : so that the term language now signifies any 
series of sounds or letters formed into words and employed for the expres- 
sion of thought. 

Obs. 2.— Letters claim to be apart of language, not merely because 
they represent articulate sounds, or spoken words, but because they form 
words of themselves, and have the power to become intelligible signs of 
thought, even independently of sound. Literature being the counter- 
part of speech, and more plenteous in words, the person who cannot 
read and write is about as deficient in language as the well-instructed 
deaf mute : perhaps, more so ; for copiousness, even of speech, results 
from letters. 

By grammar we learn how to use language correctly 
both in speaking and in writing. 

English grammar is the art of speaking and writ- 
ing the English language correctly. 

It is divided into four parts, namely, Orthography, 
Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate 
words, and spelling. 

Etymology treats of the different parts of speech, 
with their classes and modifications. 

Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, 
and arrangement, of words in sentences. 

Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, and 
versification. 



PART I, 



OBTHOGKAJPHY. 

Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate 
words, and spelling. 

I.— LETTERS. 

A letter is an alphabetic mark, or character, commonly 
representing some elementary sound of a word. 

An elementary sound of a word, is a simple or pri- 
mary sonnd of the human voice, used in speaking. 

The sound of a letter is commonly called its power : 
when any letter of a word is not sounded, it is said to be 
silent or mute. 

The letters in the English alphabet are twenty-six ; the ele- 
mentary sounds in the language are about thirty-six. 

A knowledge of the letters consists in an acquaintance with 
their names, their classes, their powers, and their forms. 

The letters are printed, written, or otherwise represented 
in a variety of forms. The following are the four chief modes 
of representation : — 

1. Roman : A a, E b, C c, D d, E e, E f , G g, fi h, 

I i, J j, K k, L 1, M m, JN T n, O o, P p, Q q, E r, S s, T t, 
U u, Y v, W w, X x, Y y, Z z. 

2. Italic : Aa,Bb,Oc,& d, E e, Ff, G g, JETh, li, 
Jj, KJ&, L Z, Mm, JSTn, o, Pj>, Q q, E r, Ss, Tt, 
Uu, Vv, Ww, Xx, Ty, Zz. 



20 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

3. Script: Q( ». M £ r S c, ® d S e, 

<gp <$ i q?<; //, 's%4. set 
gw- v &,, &/>. & 9 . m*. &*. 



w, &D co, 



Ft, w«. w», 

4. Old English : ft a, S b, 01 c, ft 5, <£ t, ft, (3 $, 
fi b, I i, S j, tt k, fc 1, ill m, N n, © 0, J) p, OH q, ft r, 

e b, a t, m », b », to w, x * $ s, g *. 

Names of the Letters. 

The names of the letters, as now commonly spoken and 
written in English, are A, Bee, Cee, Dee, E, Eff, Gee, Aitch, 
I, Jay, Kay, Ell, Em, En, 0, Pee, Kue, Ar, Ess, Tee, U, Vee, 
Double -u, Ex, Wy, Zee. 

Obs. 1. — The names of the letters, as expressed in the modern lan- 
guages, are mostly framed with reference to their powers, or sounds. Yet 
is there in English no letter of which the name is always identical with 
its power ; for A, E, I, 0, and JJ, are the only letters which can name 
themselves, and all these have other sounds than those which their 
names express. 

Obs. 2. — Those letters which name themselves, take for their names 
those sounds which they usually represent at the end of an accented 
syllable ; thus the names, A, E, I, 0, U, are uttered with the sounds 
given to the same letters in the first syllables of the other names, Abel, 
Enoch, Isaac, Obed, Urim ; or in the first syllables of the common words, 
paper, penal, pilot, potent, pupil. The other letters, most of which can 
never be perfectly sounded alone, have names in which their powers 
are combined with other sounds more vocal ; as, Bee, Cee, Dze, — Ell, 
Em, En, — Jay, Kay, Kue, But, in this respect, the terms Aitch and 
DouMe-u are irregular ; because they have no obvious reference to the 
powers of the letters thus named. 

Obs. 3 — Letters, like all other things, must be learned and spoken of by 
their names ; yet, as the simple characters are better known and more 
easily exhibited than their written names, the former are often substi- 
tuted for the latter, and are read as the words for which they are assumed. 

Obs. 4. — The letters, once learned, may be used unnamed ; and so are 
they always used, except in oral spelling, or when some of their own 
number are to be particularized. 



LETTERS. 21 

Classes of the Letters. 

The letters are divided into two general classes, vowels 
and consonants. 

A vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound when 
uttered alone ; as, a, e, o. 

A consonant is a letter which cannot be perfectly 
uttered till joined to a vowel ; as, b, c, d. 

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 
All the other letters are consonant. 

W or y is called a consonant when it precedes a vowel 
heard in the same syllable; as in wine, twine, whine/ ye, 
yet, youth : in all other cases, these letters are vowels ; as 
in newly, dewy, eye-brow • Yssel, Ystadt, yttria. 

Classes of Consonants. 

The consonants are divided into semivowels and 
mutes. 

A semivowel is a consonant which can be imperfectly 
sounded without a vowel, so that at the end of a syllable 
its sound may be protracted ; as, I, n, z, in al, an, az. 

A mute is a consonant which cannot be sounded at alJ 
without a vowel, and which at the end of a syllable sud- 
denly stops the breath ; as, k, jp, t, in ah, aj>, at. 

The semivowels are f, h, j, I, m, n, r, s, v, w, x, y, z, and c 
and g soft : but w or y at the end of a syllable, is a vowel ; 
and the sound of c, f, g, h, j, s, or x, can be protracted only as 
an aspirate, or strong breath. 

Four of the semivowels, — I, m, n, and r, — are termed liquids, 
on account of the fluency of their sounds ; and four others, — 
v, w, y, and z, — are likewise more vocal that the aspirates. 

The mutes are eight ; b, d, k, p, q, t, and c and g hard : 
three of these, — Jc, q, and c hard — sound exactly alike : b d, 
and g hard, stop the voice less suddenly than the rest. 



22 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Obs. 1.— The foregoing division of the letters is of very great antiquity, 
and, in respect to its principal features, sanctioned by almost universal 
authority. Aristotle, three hundred and thirty years before Christ, di- 
vided the Greek letters into vowels, semivowels, and mutes, and declared 
that no syllable could be formed without a vowel. Some modern 
writers, however, not well satisfied with this ancient distribution of the 
elements of learning, have contradicted the Stagirite, and divided both 
sounds and letters into new classes, with various new names. Dr. Rush, 
author of "the Philosophy of the Human Voice," resolves the letters 
into '* tonics, syntonics, and atonies;" and avers that "consonants alone 
may form syllables." Other authors have used the terms vocals, sub- 
vocals, and aspirates in classifying the elementary sounds. 

Obs. 2. — Certain consonants or consonantal sounds are often dis- 
tinguished in pairs, by way of contrast with each other, the one being- 
called fiat and the other sharp : as, b and p ; d and t ; g hard and k ; 
j and eh; v and f; th flat and th sharp; z and sharp s; zli and sh. 
These, with reference to each other, are sometimes termed correlatives 
or cognates. 

Powers of the Letters. 

The powers of the letters are properly those elementary 
sounds which their figures are used to represent ; but letters 
formed into "words are capable of communicating thought 
independently of sound. 

The vowel sounds which form the basis of the Eng- 
lish language, and which ought therefore to be perfectly 
familiar to every one who speaks it, are those which are heard 
at the beginning of the words, ate, at, ah, all, eel, ell, isle, HI, 
old, on, ooze, use, us, and that of u in bull. 

In the formation of words or syllables, some of these four- 
teen primary sounds may be joined together, as in ay, oil, out, 
oid ; and all of them may be preceded or followed by certain 
motions and positions of the lips and tongue, which will 
severally convert them into other terms in speech. Thus the 
same essential sounds may be changed into a new series of 
words by an/; as, fate, fat, far, fall, feel, fell, file, fill, fold, 
fond, fool, fuse, fuss, full. Again, into as many more with a 
p ; as, pate, pat, par, pall, peel, pell, pile, pill, pole, pond, pool, 
pule, purl, pull. 



LETTEKS. 23 

The simple consonant sounds in English are 
twenty-two : they are marked by b, d, f, g hard, h, k, I, m, n, 
ng, p, r, s, sh, t, th sharp, th flat, v, w, y, z, and zh. But zh is 
written only to show the sound of other letters ; as of s in 
pleasure, or z in azure. 

All these sounds are heard distinctly in the following words: 
buy, die, fie, guy, high, hie, lie, my, nigh, eying, pie, rye, sigh, 
shy, tie, thigh, thy, vie, we, ye, zebra, seizure. Again : most of 
them may be repeated in the same word if not in the same 
syllable; as in bibber, diddle, fifty, giggle, high-hung, cackle, 
lily, mimic, ninny, singing, pippin, mirror, hissest, flesh-brush, 
tittle, thinketh, thither, vivid, witwal, union, dizzies, vision. 

Obs. 1. — The possible combinations and mutations of the twenty-six 
letters of our alphabet are many millions of millions. But those clusters 
which are unpronounceable, are useless. Of such as may be easily 
uttered, there are. more than enough for all the purposes of useful writ- 
ing, or the recording of speech. 

Thus it is, that from principals so few and simple as about six or seven 
and thirty plain elementary sounds, represented by characters still fewer, 
we derive such a variety of oral and written signs, as may suffice to ex- 
plain or record all the sentiments and transactions of all men in all ages. 

Obs. 2. — Different vowel sounds are produced by opening the mouth 
differently, and placing the tongue in a peculiar manner for each ; but 
the voice may vary in loudness, pitch, or time, and still utter the same 
vowel power. 

Obs. 3. — Each of the vowel sounds may be variously expressed by 
letters. About half of them are sometimes words : the rest are seldom, 
if ever, used alone even to form syllables. But the reader may easily 
learn to utter them all, separately, according to the foregoing series. Let 
us note them as plainly as possible : eigh, a, ah, awe, eh, e, eye, i, oh, 
6, oo, yew, ii, u. Thus the eight long sounds, eigh, ah, awe, eh, eye, oh, 
ooli, yew, are, or may be words ; but the six less vocal, called the short 
vowel sounds, as in at, et, it, ot, ut, put, are commonly heard only in 
connection with consonants ; except the first, which is perhaps the most 
frequent sound of the vowel A or a — a sound sometimes given to the 
ward a, perhaps most generally ; as in the phrase, "twice a day." 

Obs. 4. — With us, the consonants J and X represent, not simple, but 
complex sounds : hence they are never doubled. J is equivalent to 
dzh ; and X, either to ks or to gz. The former ends no English word. 
and the latter begins none. To the initial X of foreign words, we 
always give the simple sound of Z ; as in Xerxes, xebec. 



24 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Obs. 5. — The consonants C and Q have no sounds peculiar to them- 
selves. Q has always the power of k, and is constantly followed hy u 
and some vowel or two more in the same syllable ; as in quake, quest, 
quit, quoit. C is hard, like k, before a, o, and u ; and soft, like s, before 
e, i, and y : thus the syllables ca, ce, ci, co, cu, ey, are pronounced ka, se, 
si, ko, ku, sy. S before c preserves the former sound, but coalesces 
with the latter ; hence the syllables, sea, see, sci, sco, scu, scy, are sounded 
ska, se, si, sko, sku, sy. Ce and ci have sometimes the sound of sh; as 
in ocean, social. Ch commonly represents the sound of tsh ; as in church. 

Obs. 6. — G, as well as C, has different sounds before different vowels. 
G is always hard, or guttural, before a, o, and u ; and generally soft, 
like j, before e, i, or y : thus the syllables, ga, ge, gi, go, gu, gy, are pro- 
nounced ga, je, ji, go, gu, jy. 

Forms of the Letters. 

In the English language, the Eoman characters are gener- 
ally employed ; sometimes, the Italic ; and occasionally, the 

(DRr (English.. In writing, we use the &cuM 

The letters have severally two forms, by which they are 
distinguished as capitals and small letters. 

Small letters constitute the body of every work, and capi- 
tals are used for the sake of eminence and distinction. 

Hulesfor the use of Capitals. 

Rule I. — Titles of Books. 
The titles of books, and the heads of their principal divisions, should 
be printed in capitals. When books are merely mentioned, the chief 
words in their titles begin with capitals, and the other letters are small ; 
as, "Pope's Essay on Man." 

Rule II. — Ftrst Words. 
The first word of every distinct sentence, or of any clause separately 
numbered or paragraphed, should begin with a capital. 

Rule III. — Names of Deity. 
All names of the Deity should begin with capitals ; as, God, Jehovah, 
the Almighty, the Supreme Being. 

Rule IV.— Proper Names. 
Titles of office or honor, and proper names of every description, should 
begin with capitals ; as, Chief Justice Hale, William, London, tJie Park, 
the Albion, the Spectator, the Thames. 



SYLLABLES. 25 

Rule Y. — Object Personified. 
The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea strictly 
individual, should begin with a capital ; as, 

"Come, gentle Spring, ethereal mildness, come." 

Rule VI. — Words Derived. 

Words derived from proper names of persons or places should begin 
with capitals ; as, Newtonian, Grecian, Roman. 

Rule VLT.— I and O. 

The words /and should always be capitals ; as, " Out of the depths 
have /cried unto thee Lord." 

Rule VHI— In Poetry. 

Every line in poetry, except what is regarded as making but one 
verse with the line preceding, should begin with a capital ; as, 
" Our sons their fathers' failing language see, 
And such as Chaucer is, shall Dryden be." — Pope. 

Rule IX. — Examples, etc. 
A full example, a distinct speech, or a direct quotation, should begin 
with a capital ; as, " Remember this maxim : ' Know thyself.' " " Vir- 
gil says, ' Labor conquers all things. ' " 

Rule X. — Chief Words. 
Other words of particular importance, and such as denote the princi- 
pal subjects of discourse, may be distinguished by capitals. Proper 
names frequently have capitals throughout. 



II.— SYLLABLES. 



A syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one 
sound, and is either a word or a part of a word ; as, a, an, 
ant. 

In every word there are as many syllables as there are 
distinct sounds ; as, gram-ma-ri-an. 

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; a 
word of two syllables, a dissyllable ; a word of three 
syllables, a trisyllable ; and a word of four or more 
syllables, a polysyllable. 



26 OETHOGEAPHY. 

Diphthongs and Triphthongs. 

A diphthong is two vowels joined in one syllable; 
as, ea in heat, ou in sound. 

A proper diphthong is a diphthong in which both 
the vowels are sounded ; as, oi in voice. 

An improper diphthong is a diphthong in which 
only one of the vowels is sounded ; as, oa in loaf. 

A triphthong is three vowels joined in one syllable ; 
as, eau in beau, iew in view. 

Ap roper triphthong is a triphthong in which all 
the vowels are sounded ; as, uoy in buoy. 

An improper triphthong is a triphthong in which 
only one or two of the vowels are sounded ; as, eau in 
beauty, iou in anxious. 

Syllabication. 

In dividing words into syllables, we are to be directed 
chiefly by the ear ; it may however be proper to observe, 
as far as practicable, the following rules : — 

Eule I.— Consonants. 
Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diphthongs 
which they modify in utterance ; as, ap-os-tol-i-eal. 

Eule II. — Vowels. 
Two vowels, coming together, if they make not a diphthong, must 1><- 
parted in dividing the syllables ; as, a-e-ri-al. 

Eule III. — Terminations. 
Derivative and grammatical terminations should generally be sepa- 
rated from the radical words to which they have been added ; as, 
harm-less, great-ly, cou-nect-ed. 

ft tle IV. — Prefixes. 

Prefixes in general form separate syllables ; as, mis-place, out-ride, up- 
lift : but if their own primitive meaning be disregarded, the case ma* 
be otherwise ; thus re-create and rec-reate are words of different import. 



WOKDS. 27 

Rule V. — Compounds. 
Compounds, when divided, should be divided into the simple words 
which compose them ; as, no-ichere. 

Rule VI. — Full Lines. 
At the end of a line, a word may be divided, if necessary ; but a syl- 
lable must never be broken. 



III.— WORDS. 

A word is one or more syllables spoken or written as 
the sign of some idea, or of some manner of thought. 

Species and Figure of Words. 

Words are distinguished as primitive or derivative, 
and as simple or compound- The former division is 
called their species ; the latter, their figure. 

A primitive word is one that is not formed from any 
simpler word in the language ; as, harm, great, connect. 

A derivative word is one that is formed from some 
simpler word in the language ; as, harmless, greatly, con- 
nected, disconnect, unconnected. 

A simple word is one that is not compounded, not 
composed of other words ; as, watch, man, never, the, less. 

A compound word is one that is composed of two 
or more simple words ; as, watchman, nevertheless. 

Permanent compounds are consolidated ; as, oookstore, 
housekeeper: others, which may be called temporary com- 
pounds, are formed by the hyphen ; as, glass-house, school- 
master. 

Rules for the Figure of Words. 

I. — Words regularly or analogically united, and commonly known as 
forming a compound, should never be needlessly broken apart. 

II. — When the simple words would only form a regular phrase, of the 
same meaning, the compounding of any of them ought to be avoided. 



28 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

III. — Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood, must be joined to- 
gether or written separately, as the sense and construction may happen 
to require. 

IV. — When two or more compounds are connected in one sentenoe, 
none of them should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word. 

"V. — When the parts of a compound do not fully coalesce ; as, to-day, to* 
night, to-morrow; or when each retains its original accent, so that the 
compound has more than one, or one that is movable; as, first-born, 
hanger-on, laughter-loving, the hyphen should be inserted between them. 

VI. — When a compound has but one accented syllable in pronuncia- 
tion, as watchword, statesman, gentleman, and the parts are such as admit 
of a complete coalescence, no hyphen should be inserted between them. 



IV.— SPELLING. 



Spelling; is the art of expressing words by their proper 
letters. 

Obs. — This important art is to be acquired rather by means of the 
spelling-book or dictionary, and by observation in reading, than by the 
study of written rules. The orthography of our language is attended 
with much uncertainty and perplexity : many words are variously 
spelled by the best scholars, and many others are not usually written ac- 
cording to the analogy of similar words. But to be ignorant of the 
orthography of such words as are uniformly spelled and frequently used, 
is justly considered disgraceful. The following rules may prevent 
some embarrassment, and thus be of service to those who wish to bo 
accurate. 

Rules for Spelling. 

Rule I. — Final, F, L, or S. 

Monosyllables ending in /, I, or s, preceded by a single vowel, double 
the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, pass : except three in /— clef, if, of; 
three in l—bul, sal, sol ; and eleven in s— as, gas, has, was, yes, to, his, 
this, us, thus, pus. 

Rule II.— Other Finals. 

Words ending in any other consonant than /, I, or s, do not double 
the final letter: except abb, ebb, add, odd, egg, inn, err, burr, purr, 
yarr, butt, buzz, fuzz, and some proper names. 



SPELLING. 29 

Kule III. — Doubling. 
Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when they 
end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, or by a vowel 
after qu, double their final consonant before an additional syllable that 
begins with a vowel: as, rob, robber; permit, permitting ; acquit, ac- 
quittal, acquitting. 

Exc. — X final, being equivalent to ks, is never doubled. 

Rule IV. — No Doubling. 

A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, or when 
the accent is not on the last syllable, should remain single before au 
additional syllable : as, toil, toiling ; visit, visited; general, generalize. 

Exc. — But I and s final are sometimes doubled (though according to 
Webster, improperly), when the last syllable is not accented ; as travel, 
traveller ; bias, biassed. 

Rule V. — Retaining. 

Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double before any 
additional termination, not beginning with the same letter ; as in the 
following derivatives : seeing, blissful, oddly, hilly, stiffness, illness, small- 
ness, carelessness, agreement, agreeable. 

Exc. — The irregular words, fled, sold, told, dwelt, spelt, spilt, shalt, 
wilt, blest, past, and the derivatives from the word pontiff, are excep- 
tions to this rule. 

Rule VI.— Final E. 

The final e mute of a primitive word, is generally omitted before an 
additional termination beginning with a vowel : as, rate, ratable ; force, 
forcible ; rave, raving ; eye, eying. 

Exc. — Words ending in ce or ge, retain the e before able or ous, to pre- 
serve the soft sounds of c and g ; as, peace, peaceable ; change, change- 
able ; outrage, outrageous. 

Rule VII.— Final E. 

The final e of a primitive word, is generally retained before an addi- 
tional termination beginning with a consonant ; as, pale, paleness ; lodge, 



Exc. — When the e is preceded by a vowel, it is sometimes omitted : 
as, true, truly ; awe, awful : and sometimes retained ; as, rue, rueful ; 



30 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Rule VIII.— Final Y. 

The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant) is 
changed into i before an additional termination : as, merry, merrier, 
■merriest, merrily, merriment ; pity, pitied, pities, pitiest, 'pitiless, pitiful, 
pitiable. 

Exc. — Before ing,y is retained to prevent the doubling of i; as. 
pity, pitying. Words ending in ie, dropping the e by Rule 6th, change 
i into y, for the same reason ; as, die, dying. 

Obs. — When a vowel precedes, y should not be changed; as, day, days; 
valley, valleys ; money, moneys ; monkey, monkeys. 

Rule IX. — Compounds. 

Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple word* 
which compose them ; as, hereof, wherein, horseman, recall, uphill, 



Exc. — In permanent compounds, the words full and all drop one I ; 
as, handful, careful, always, withal : in others, they retain both ; as, 
full- eyed, all-wise, save-all. 

Questions for Heview. 

I. — Introductory. 
What is an Idea ? 
What is a Thought ? 
What is Language ? 
What is the use of Grammar ? 
What is English Grammar ? 
How is it divided ? 
Of what does Orthography treat? 
Of what does Etymology treat ? 
Of what does Syntax treat ? 
Of what does Prosody treat ? 

II.— Letters. 

Of what does Orthography treat ? 

What is a Letter ? 

What is an elementary sound of a word ? 

What name is given to the sound of a letter ? — What epithet, to a letter not 
sounded ? 

How many letters are there in English ? — How many sounds do they rep- 
resent ? 

In what does a knowledge of the lelters consist ? 

What variety is noticed in letters that are always the same ? 

What different sorts of types, or letters, are used in English t 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 31 

What are the names of the letters in English ? 

Which of the letters name themselves, and which do not '! 

What are the names of all in both numbers, singular and plural ? 

III.— Classes of Letters. 
I. to what general classes are the letters divided ? 
What is a vowel ? 
What is a consonant ? 

What letters are vowels ? — What, consonants ? 
When are w and y consonants, and when vowels ? 
How are the consonants divided ? 
What is a semivowel ? 
What is a mute ? 

What letters are semivowels, and which of these are aspirates ? 
What letters are called liquids, and why ? 
How many and which are the letters reckoned mutes ? 

IV.— Powers, or Sounds. 
What is meant, when we speak of "the powers of the letters ? " 
In what series of short words are heard our chief vowel sounds ? 
How may these sounds be modified to form words or syllables ? 
Can you form a word from each by means of &nf? 
Will you form another such series with a p ? 
How many and what are the consonant sounds in English ? 
In what series of words may all these sounds be heard ? 
In what series of words is each of them heard more than once f 
Do our letters admit of combinations enough ? 
What do we derive from these elements of language ? 

V.— Forms of the Letters. 

What is said of the employment of the several styles of letters in English ? 

What distinction of form do we make in each of the letters ? 

What is said of small letters, and why are capitals used ? 

How many rules for capitals are given, and what are their heads ? 

What says Rule 1st of titles of books ? — Rule 2d, of first words ? — Rule 3d, of 
names of Deity ? — Rule 4th, of proper names ? — Rule 5th, of objects per- 
sonified ? — Rule 6th, of words derived, ? — Rule 7th, of I and O ? — Rule 
8th, of poetry ?— Rule 9th, of examples, etc.? — Rule 10th, of chief words? 

VI.— Syllables. 
What is a syllable ? 

Can the syllables of a word be perceived by the ear ? 
What is a word of one syllable called ? — a word of two syllables ?— of three ? 

— of four or more ? 
What is a diphthong ? 

What is a proper diphthong ? — an improper diphthong ? 
What is a triphthong ? 



32 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

What is a proper triphthong ? — An improper triphthong ? 

What chiefly directs us in dividing words into syllables ? 

How many rules of syllabication are given, and what are their heads ? 

What says Rule 1st, of consonants ?— Rule 2d, of vowels?— Rule 3d, of ter- 
minations ?— Rule 4th, of prefixes /—Rule 5th, of compounds /—Rule 6th, 
of lines full? 

VII.— Words. 
What is a word ? 

How are words distinguished in regard to species and figure. 
What is a primitive word ? 
What is a derivative word ? 
What is a simple word ? 
What is a compound word ? 

How do permanent compounds differ from others ? 

How many are the rules for the figure of words, and what are their heads ? 
What says rule 1st, of compounds? — Rule 2d, of simples? — Rule 3d, of the 

sense? — Rule 4th, of ellipses? — Rule 5th, of the hyphen? — Rule 6th, of 

using no hyphen ? 

VIII.— Spelling. 

What is spelling ? 

How is this art to be acquired ? 

How many rules for spelling are there, and what are their heads ? 

What says Rule 1st of final fi Z, or s ? — Rule 2d, of other finals ; — Rule 3d, of 
the doubling of consonants ? — Rule 4th, against the doubling of conso- 
nants ? — Rule 5th, of retaining ? — Rule 6th, of final e ? — Rule 7th, of 
final e ? — Rule 8th, of final y ? — Rule 9th, of compounds ? 

Exercises for Writing. 

I. — Capitals. 
These exercises are classified according to rules on pages 24, 25. 

1. The pedant quoted Johnson's dictionary of the english language, 
Gregory's dictionary of arts and sciences, Crabb's english synonymes, 
Walker's key to the pronunciation of proper names, Sheridan's rhetori- 
cal grammar, and the diversions of purley. 

2. gratitude is a delightful emotion, the grateful heart at once per- 
forms its duty and endears itself to others. 

3. What madness and folly, to deny the great first cause ! Shall 
mortal man presume against his maker ? shall he not fear the omnipo- 
tent ? shall he not reverence the everlasting one ? — ' The fear of the lord 
is the beginning of wisdom.' 

4. xerxes the great, emperor of persia, united the medes, persians, 
bactrians, lydians, assyrians, hyrcanians, and many other nations, in an 
expedition against greece. 



EXERCISES EOR WRITING. 33 

5. I observed that, when the votaries of religion were led aside, she 
commonly recalled them by her emissary conscience, before habit had 
time to enchain them. 

6. Hercules is said to have killed the nemean lion, the erymanthian 
boar, the lernean serpent, and the stymphalian birds. The christian 
religion has brought all mythologic stories and milesian fables into dis- 
repute. 

7. i live as i did, i think as i did, i love you as i did ; but all these 
are to no purpose ; the world will not live, think, or love as i do. — o 
wretched prince ! o cruel reverse of fortune ! o father Micipsa ! 

8. are these thy views ? proceed, illustrious youth, 
and virtue guard thee to the throne of truth ! 

9. Those who pretend to love peace, should remember this maxim : 
" it is the second blow that makes the battle." 



II. — Capitals. Miscellaneous. 

'time and i will challenge any other two,' said philip. — ' thus,' said 
diogenes, ' do I trample on the pride of plato.' — 'true,' replied plato ; 
' but is it not with the greater pride of diogenes ? ' 

the father in a transport of joy, burst into the following words : ' o 
excellent scipio ! heaven has given thee more than human virtue ! o 
glorious leader ! o wondrous youth ! ' 

epaminondas, the theban general, was remarkable for his love of 
truth, he never told a lie, even in jest. 

and pharaoh said to Joseph, ' ' say to thy brethren, ' do this — lade your 
beasts, and go to the land of canaan. ' " 

who is she that, with graceful steps and a lively air, trips over yonder 
plain ? her name is health : she is the daughter of exercise and temper- 
ance. 

to the penitent sinner, a mediator and intercessor with the sovereign 
of the universe, appear comfortable names. 

the murder of abel, the curse and rejection of cain, and the birth 
and adoption of seth, are almost the only events related of the immedi- 
ate family of adam, after his fall. 

on what foundation stands the warrior's pride, 
how just his hopes, let Swedish charles decide. 

in every leaf that trembles to the breeze, 
i hear the voice of god among the trees. 
2* 



34 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

III.— Syllables. 

Divide the following words into their proper syllables : — 

Ado, adorn, adown, adrift, anoint, athwart, awry, .bespeak, bestow, 
between, encroach, incrust, foreknow, forestall, forswear, underanged- 
preterit, retrace, unoiled, unrepaid, unresting, underbid, upholder, 
withal. 

Civil, color, copy, damask, dozen, ever, feather, gather, heaven, 
lemon, meadow, never, orange, punish, robin, shovel, timid, whither, 
benefit, canister, generous, academical, several, miserable, tolerable, 
epidemic, paralytic, liberal, characteristic, experimental. 

Folio, genial, genius, glossy, junior, mover, satiate, seizure, vitiate, 
ambrosia, convenient, ingenious, omniscience, peculiar, substantiate, 
sociable, partiality, pecuniary, annunciate, enunciate, appreciate, 
associate, expatiate, negotiate. 

Eastern, pallet, stormy, England, anthill, cowslip, farewell, foretop, 
hogshead, homeward, sandstone, forever, husbandman, painstaker, 
bookseller, acquittal, requisition, architecture, machinery, aqueduct, 
arable, horrible, inflammation, impossible, preferable, perilous, business, 
preferred. 

IV.— Figure op Words. 
Correct the errors in the following \ according to the rules on pages 27, 28. 

1. The shine of the plough share is the farmer's wealth. 

The cross row has ever had some thing of a magic spell in it. 
The old fashioned are apt to think the world grows worse. 
The stealing of water melons may lead to house breaking. 
A good clothes brush helps greatly to make a gentle man. 

2. An ill-tongue is a fearful corrupter of good-manners. 
Envy not the good-luck of prosperous transgressors. 

St. Paul admonishes Timothy to refuse old-wives'-fables. 
Lawmakers have often been partial to male-descendants. 
New-year's-gifts brighten many a face on new-year's day. 

3. They that live in glass-houses should not throw stones. 
A glass house is a house in which glass is manufactured. 
A spirit stirring discourse is seldom a long winded one. 
Knowledge and virtue are the stepping stones to honor. 
The American whip poor Will is a night warbling bird. 

4. Let school and meeting-houses be pleasantly located. 
The teapot and kettle are now deemed indispensable. 
Both the ten and the eight syllable verses are iambics. 
Most, at six or seventeen years of age, are men and women. 
A ketch is a vessel with two masts, a main and mizzen-inu:?t. 



EXERCISES FOR WRITING. 35 

5. The bloodyruinded man seldom dwells long in safety. 

A tiresmitk puts on wheelbands redhot, then cools them. 
Plato was so called because he was broadshouldered. 
Timehonored custom may be souldestroying folly. 
Is evenhanded honesty expected in slavemerchants ? 

6. A good pay-master is always a man of some fore-thought. 
The glory of the common-wealth is the states-man's boast. 
Rain-bows are made of sun-shine dissolved in sky water. 

V. — Spelling. 

In the following exercises the pupil is required to correct the errors in 
spelling according to the rules on pages, 28, 29, 30. 

I. 

1. Few know the value of a friend, til they lose him. 
Good men pas by offences, and take no revenge. 
Hear patiently, iff thou wouldst speak wel. 

2. The business of warr is devastation and destruction. 
To er is human ; to forgive, divine. 

A bad speller should not pretend to scholarshipp. 

3. It often requires deep diging, to obtain pure water. 
Praise is most shuned by the praiseworthy. 

He that hoists too much sail, runs a risk of overseting. 

4. Quarrels are more easily begun than endued. 
Contempt leaves a deepper scar than anger. 

Of all tame animals the fl.atterrer is the most mischievous,, 

5. Smalness with talness makes the figure too slender. 
Heedlesness is always in danger of embarrasment. 
The recklesness of license is no attribute of fredom. 

(3. Good examples are very convinceing teachers. 
Doubts should not excite contention, but inquirey. 
Obligeing conduct procures deserved esteem. 

7. Wise men measure time by their improvment of it. 
Learn to estimate all things by their real usfulness. 
Encouragment increases with success. 

8. Nothing essential to happyness is unattainable. 
Vices, though near relations, are all at varyance. 
Before thou denyest a favor, consider the request. 

9. Good-wil is a more powerful motive than constraint. 
A wel-spent day prepares us for sweet repose. 

The path of fame is altogether an uphil road. 



36 ORTHOGRAPHY. 



II. 



1. He is tal enough who walks uprightly. 
Repetition makes smal transgressions great. 
Religion regulates the wil and affections. 

2. To carry a ful cupp even, requires a steady hand. 
Idleness is the nest in which mischief lays its egs. 
The whole journey of life is besett with foes. 

3. Peace of mind should be prefered to bodily safety. 
A bad begining is unfavorable to success. 

Very fruitful trees often need to be proped. 

4. None ever gained esteem by tattling and gossipping. 
Religion purifies, fortifies, and tranquillizes the mind. 
They had all been closetted together a long time. 

5. Blesed is he whose transgresion is forgiven. 
Indolence and listlesness are foes to happiness. 
Carelesness has occasioned many a wearisome step. 

6. In all thy undertakeings, ponder the motive and the end 
We cannot wrong others without injureing ourselves. 

A dureable good cannot spring from an external cause. 

7. Duely appreciate and improve your privileges. 

To borrow of future time, is thriftless managment. 
He who is truely a freman is above mean compliances. 

8. Pitiing friends cannot save us in a diing hour. 
Wisdom rescues the decaies of age from aversion. 
Vallies are generally more fertile than hills. 

9. Cold numness had quite bereft her of sense. 

A cascade, or waterfal, is a charming object in scenery. 
Nettles grow in the vinyard of the slothfull. 
Tuition is lost on idlers and numbsculs. 



HI. 

1. He that scofs at the crooked, should beware of stooping. 
Pictures that resemble flowers, smel only of paint. 
Misdemeanors are the pioneers of gros vices. 

2. To remitt a wrong, leaves the offender in debt. 
Superlative commendation is near akinn to detraction. 
Piety admitts not of excessive sorrow. 

3. You are safe in forgeting benefits you have confered. 
He has run well who has outstriped his own errors. 
See that you have ballast proportionate to your riging. 

4. The biasses of prejudice often preclude convincement. 
Rather follow the wise than lead the foollisb. 



EXERCISES FOR WRITING. 37 

To reason with, the angry, is like wkisperring to the deaf. 
A bigotted judge needs no time for deliberation. 
The gods of this world have many worshippers. 

5. Crosness has more subjects than admirers. 
Fearlesness conquers where blamelesness is armor-bearer. 

6. Many things are chiefly valued for their rareity. 
Vicious old age is hopeless and deploreable. 
Irreconcileable animosity is always blameable. 

7. Treachery lurks beneath a guilful tongue. 
Disobedience and mischief deserve chastisment. 

By self-examination, we discover the lodgements of sin. 
The passions often mislead the judgement. 

8. To be happy without holyness is impossible. 
And, all within, were walks and allies wide. 
Call imperfection what thou fancy'st such. 
Without fire, chimnies are useless. 

9. The true philanthropist deserves a universal pasport. 
Ridicule is generalty but the froth of il-nature. 

All mispent time will one day be regretted. 

IY. — Miscellaneous. 

Fiction may soften, without improveing the heart. 
Affectation is a sprout that should be niped in the bud. 
A covettous person is always in want. 
Fashion is compareable to an ignis-fatuus. 
Fair appearances somtimes cover foul purposes. 
Garnish not your commendations with flatterry. 
Never utter a falshood even for truth's sake. 
Medicines should be administerred with caution. 
We have here no continueing city, no abideing rest. 
Many a trapp is laid to ensnare the feet of youth. 
We are caught as sillyly as the bird in the net. 
By defering repentance, we accumulate sorrows. 
To preach to the droneish, is to waste your words. 
We are often benefitted by what we have dreaded. 
We may be succesful, and yet disappointed. 
In rebusses, pictures are used to represent words. 
He is in great danger who parlies with conscience. 
Your men of forhead are magnificent in promises. 
A true friend is a most valueable acquisition. 
It is not a bad memory that forgets injuryes. 
Weigh your subject wel, before you speak positivly. 
Difficulties are often increased by mismanagment. 



38 OKTHOUKAPHY. 

Diseases are more easyly prevented than cured. 
Contrivers of mischief often entrapp themselves. 
Corrupt speech indicates a distemperred mind. 
Asseveration does not allways remove doubt, 
Hypocrites are like wolves in sheeps' clotheing. 
Ostentatious liberallity is its own paymaster. 

V. — Miscellaneous. 

A downhil road may be travelled with ease. 

Distempered fancy can swel a molehil to a mountain. 

Let your own unbiassed judgment determine. 

A knave can often undersel his honest neighbors. 

Xenophanes prefered reputation to wealth. 

True politeness is the of spring of benevolence. 

Levellers are generally the dupes of designning men. 

Rewards are for those who have fullfiled their duty. 

Who trusts a hungry boy in a cubburd of dainties ? 

Misery acquaints a man with strange bedfellers. 

The liberal man ties his purse with a beau-not. 

Double-deelers are seldom long in favor. 

The characters of the crosrow have wrought wonders. 

The plagiary is a jacdaw decked with stolen plumes. 

All virtues are in agrement ; all vices, at varyance. 

Personnal liberty is every man's natural birthrite. 

There, wrapt in clouds, the blueish hills ascend. 

The birds frame to thy song their chearfull cherupping. 

There figgs, skydyed, a purple hue disclose. 

Lysander goes twice a day to the choccolat-house. 

Years following years steal sumthing every day. 

The soul of the slothfull does but drowse in his body. 

What think you of a clergiman in a soldier's dres ? 

Justice is here holding the stilliards for a balance. 

The huming-bird is somtimes no biger than a bumble-be. 

The muskittoes will make you as spoted as a samon-trout. 

Cruelty to animals is a malicious and lo-lived vice. 

Absolute Necessity must sign their deth-warrant. 

He who catches flies, emulates the nat-snaper. 

The froggs had long lived unmolested in a horspond. 

"These are villanous creatures," says a blokheded boy. 
The robbin-read-breast til of late had rest, 
And children sacred held a martin's nest. 



PART II. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats of the different parts of speech, with 
their classes and modifications. 

I.— THE SENTENCE. 

In the utterance of an y definite thought, such as, Birds fly — The sun 
shi?ies — Fishes stci?n, there is obviously some person or thing spoken of, 
and something said of that person or thing. The former is called the 
subject, and the latter the predicate. When united so as to make 
complete sense, these form what is called a proposition ; and a 
proposition, or a combination of two or more propositions, forms a sen- 
tence. 

Thus Man is mortal is a sentence containing one proposition ; and Art 
is long, and time is fleeting is a sentence containing two propositions. 

The distinction between the subject and the predicate of a sentence 
should be clearly understood. This distinction is marked in the follow- 
ing sentences : — 



Subjects. 

Birds 

The flowers 

Perseverance 

The love of truth 

An honest man 



Predicates. 

sing. 

are fading. 

overcomes all obstacles. 

will prevail over error. 

is the noblest work of God. 



The following definitions will now be understood. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, making complete 
sense ; as, "Reward sweetens labor." — " The fear of the Lord 
is the beginning of wisdom." 



40 ETYMOLOGY. 

Every sentence must contain two principal parts ; namely, 
the subject and the predicate. 

Whatever is directly spoken of in the sentence is the sub- 
ject ; as, " The sun has set." — " Can you write ? " 

That which is said of the subject is the predicate ; as, 
" Beauty fades." 

Any combination of the subject and predicate is called a 
proposition. 

Words added to other words in a sentence to modify or limit 
their meaning are called adjuncts ; as, "A good scholar 
rapidly improves." 

Sentences are divided, with respect to the nature of the 
propositions which they contain, into four classes ; declara- 
tive, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. 

A sentence is declarative, when it expresses an affirmation 
or negation ; interrogative, when it expresses a question ; im- 
perative, when it expresses a command ; and exclamatory, 
when it expresses an exclamation. 

Exercises. 

1. Point out the subject and the predicate in the following sentences^ 
and state to which of the four classes each sentence belongs. 

Obs. — In interrogative and exclamatory sentences, the words are usu- 
ally transposed ; in imperative sentences, the subject is often under- 
stood ; as, "Bring me a slate; " in which the subject is thou or you, 
understood. 

The tree bears fruit. The ox bears a yoke. The carpenter uses a 
saw. Avarice causes crime. The miser loves gold. The boy has told 
an untruth. The merchant has made a fortune. The river overflowed 
its banks. Lend Charles a book. Has Mary received the letter ? Will 
Richard return soon ? How hard a task he has ! The scholar's diligence 
deserves a reward. Do not injure your neighbor. How kindly he 
treated his schoolmate ! Has Robert found his pencil ? 

2 . Write 'predicates for the following subjects. 

Flowers. Oranges. Industry. Honesty. An industrious boy. A dis- 
honest clerk. An amiable disposition. A good character. George 
Washington. Napoleon Bonaparte. Queen Victoria. 



THE PATCTS OF SPEECH. 41 

3. Write subjects for the following predicates. 

is writing. was too late. did not improve. 

will be rewarded. should be treated with kindness. 

brings misery. is a source of happiness. 

4. Insert as many adjuncts as possible to the subject and predicate of 
each of the following sentences. 

Example. 

The horses ran. 

The wild horses ran away very swiftly. 

The ship sailed. Flowers bloom. Flowers fade. Birds fly. The 
sun shines. The scholar improves. The oxen are grazing. The man 
is ploughing. The dog is barking. The woman is washing. The storm 
rages. The wind blows. The lightning flashes. The thunder peals. 



II.-THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

The words that compose a sentence are used for various purposes in 
connection with the subject or predicate. Some are names of persons 
or things ; some express action ; some, quality; others, relation; and 
some are used to connect words or propositions. 

For this reason the words or parts of a sentence have been arranged in 
classes, called the Parts of Speech. 

The Parts of Speech, or sorts of words, in English, are 
ten; namely, the article, the noun, the adjective, 
the pronoun, the verb, the participle, the adverb, 
the conjunction, the preposition, and the inter- 
jection. 

An article is the word the, cm, or a, which we put be- 
fore nouns to limit their signification ; as, The air, the 
stars ; an island, a ship. 

A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, 
that can be known or mentioned ; as, George, York, man, 
apple, truth. 

An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, 
and generally expresses quality ; as, A wise man ; a new 
book. You two are diligent. 



42 ETYMOLOGY. 

A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun : as, " The 
boy loves his book; he lias long lessons, and he learns them 
well." 

A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted 
upon : as, I am, I rule, I am ruled / I love, thou lovest, lie 

A participle is a word derived from a verb, participat- 
ing the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun. 

It is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the 
verb : thus, from the verb rule, are formed three parti- 
ciples : two simple and one compound ; as, 1, riding ; 2, 
ruled ; 3, having ruled. 

An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an 
adjective, or another adverb ; and generally expresses time, 
place, degree, or manner ; as, " They are now here, study- 
ing very diligently '." 

A conjunction is a word used to connect words' or 
sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of 
the terms so connected ; as, " Thou and he are happy, 
because you are good." 

A preposition is a word used to express some rela- 
tion of different things or thoughts to each other, and is 
generally placed before a noun or a pronoun ; as, " The 
paper lies before me on the desk." 

An interjection is a word that is uttered merely to 
indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind ; as, 
Oh ! alas ! ah ! jpoh ! pshaw ! avaunt ! 

Definitions of Terms. 

A definition of anything or class of things is such a de- 
scription of it, as distinguishes that entire thing or class from 
every thing else, by briefly telling what it is. 

A rule Of grammar is some law, more or less general, 
by which custom regulates and prescribes the right use of 
language. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 43 

A praxis is a method of exercise, showing the learner how 
to proceed. (The word literally signifies action, doing, prac- 
tice, or formal use.) 

An example is a particular instance or model, serving to 
prove or illustrate some given proposition or truth. 

An exercise is some technical performance required of 
the learner, in order to test his knowledge or skill by use. 

Parsing is the resolving or explaining of a sentence, or 
of some related word or words, according to the definitions 
and rules of grammar. 

Exercises in Parsing. 
Praxis I.— Etymological. 

hi the First Praxis, it is required of the pupil, after analyzing the sen- 
tence, by pointing out the subject and predicate, with the adjuncts in each, 
to distinguish the different parts of speech, and to assigji a reason for 
such distinction, by citing the proper definition, and adapting it to each 
particular case. Thus : — 

Example Parsed. 
" The patient ox submits to the yoke, and meekly performs the labor 
required of him. " 

1. Submits is a verb, because it signifies action ; 
Performs is also a verb, for the same reason. 

2. Ox is a noun, because it is the name of a thing ; 
Yoke and labor are nouns, for the same reason. 

3. The is an article, because it limits the signification of ox, yoke, or labor— the 

noun before which it is placed. 

4. Patient is an adjective, because it expresses the quality of the ox. 

5. Him is a pronoun, because it is used instead of the noun ox. 

6. Required is a participle, because it expresses action like a verb, and qualifies 

the noun labor like an adjective. 

7. Meekly is an adverb, because it is added to the verb performs, and expresses 

manner. 

8. And, is a conjunction, because it connects the predicates containing the verbs 

szibmits and performs. 

9. To is a preposition, because it expresses the relation of the verb submits to the 

noun yoke. 

Note. — The numbers are here used to indicate the order in which the pupil should, at 
first, be required to distinguish the parts of speech in the sentences given in this exer- 
cise. The verb is made the first in this series, because it is the word to which all others 
have an immediate or remote relation, and because it is easily recognized, and, when 
discovered, leads the mind necessarily to a knowledge of the other parts of speech com- 



44 ETYMOLOGY. 

prehended in the sentence, by showing the particular office of every word. This cannot 
be done, at this stage of the pupil's progress, with a proper degree of intelligence and 
precision, by mechanically examining each word in succession ; for the reason that to do 
so requires him to compare the distinctive office of each part of speech with the word ex- 
amined ; while in these preliminary exercises, he is only required to keep in mind the 
character of a single part of speech, and compare it with each word of the sentence in 
succession. B sides, an eclectic process like that indicated, is better calculated to keep 
the interest and attention of the pupil awake, the constant desire of discovery continu- 
ally stimulating mental activity. 

Evil communications corrupt good manners. 

Good books always deserve a careful perusal. 

Passionate men are very easily irritated. 

Perseverance finally overcomes all obstacles. 

Human happiness is exceedingly transient. 

The industrious boys have recited their lessons well. 

A landscape presents a pleasing variety of objects. 

The eagle has a strong and piercing eye. 

The rose, the lily, and the pink are fragrant flowers. 

Sloth enfeebles equally the bodily and the mental powers. 

Virtuous youth gradually brings forward accomplished and flourishing 
manhood. 

In the spring the trees resume their verdure. 

Industry is needful in every condition of life ; the price of all im- 
provement is labor. 



III. -ARTICLES. 



An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put be- 
fore nouns to limit their signification. 

An and a are one and the same article. An is used whenever the 
following word begins with a vowel sound ; as, An art, an end, an heir, 
an inch, an ounce, an hour, an urn. — A is used whenever the follow- 
ing word begins with a consonant sound ; as, A man, a house, a won- 
der, a one, a yew, a use, a ewer. Thus the consonant sounds of w and 
y, even when expressed by other letters, require a and not an before 
them. 

Classes. 

The articles are distinguished as the definite and the 
indefinite. 

The definite article is the, which denotes some par- 
ticular thing or things ; as, The boy, the oranges. 



NOUNS. 45 

The indefinite article is an or a, which denotes one 
thing of a kind, but not any particular one ; as, A boy, an 
orange. 

Exercises for Writing, 

1. Prefix the definite article to the following nouns : 

Path, paths ; loss, losses ; name, names ; page, pages ; want, wants ; 
doubt, doubts ; votary, votaries. 

2. Prefix the indefinite article to the following nouns : 

Age, error, idea, omen, urn, arch, bird, cage, dream, empire, farm, 
grain, horse, idol, jay, king, lady, man, novice, opinion, pony, quail, 
raven, sample, trade, uncle, vessel, window, youth, zone, whirlwind, 
union, onion, unit, eagle, house, honor, hour, herald, habitation, hos- 
pital, harper, harpoon, ewer, eye, humor. 

3. Insert the definite article rightly in the following phrases : 

George second — part first — reasons most obvious— good man — wide 
circle — man of honor — man of world — old books — common people — 
same person, smaller piece — rich and poor— first and last — all time — 
great excess — nine muses — how rich reward — all ancient writers— in 
nature of things — much better course. 

4. Insert the indefinite article rightly in each of the following phrases : 
new name — very quick motion — other sheep — such power — what in- 
stance — great weight— such worthy cause — too great difference — high 
honor — humble station — universal law — what strange event — so deep 
interest— as firm hope — so great wit — humorous story — such person — few 
dollars — little reflection. 



IV.— NOUNS. 



A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, 
that can be known or mentioned. 

Obs. 1. — All words and signs taken technically (that is, independently 
of their meaning, and merely as things spoken of), are nouns ; or, rather, 
are things read and construed as nouns ; as, " Us is a personal pronoun." 
—Murray. " Th has two sounds."— Id. 



46 ETYMOLOGY. 

Obs. 2. — The learner must observe the sense and use of each word, 
and class it accordingly : many words commonly belonging to other 
parts of speech, are occasionally used as nouns; as, 1. "The Ancient of 
days." — Bible. " Of the ancients." — Swift. " For such impertinents." 
— Steele. "He is an ignorant in it." — Id. "To the nines." — Burns. 
2. "Or any he, the proudest of thy sort." — Shak. " I am the happiest 
she in Kent," — Steele. "The shes of Italy." — Shak. "The h?s in 
birds." — Bacon. 3. "Avaunt all attitude, and stare, and start, the- 
atric ! " — Cowper. ' 'A may-be of mercy is insufficient. " — Bridge. 4. " For 
the producing of real happiness." — Crabb. " Beading, writing, and 
ciphering, are indispensable to civilized man." 5. " A hereafter." — 
Addison. "The dread of a hereafter." — Fuller. "The deep amen." 
— Scott. "The while." — Milton. 6. "With hark, and whoop, and wild 
halloo." — Scott. "Will cuts him short with a ' What then ? ' " — Addison. 



Classes. 

Nouns are divided into two general classes : proper 
and common. 

A proper noun is the name of some particular in- 
dividual, or people, or group ; as, Adam, Boston, the 
Hudson, the Romans, the Azores, the Alps. 

A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or 
class, of beings or things ; as, Beast, bird, jish, insect, — 
creatures, persons, children. 

The particular classes, collective, abstract, and verbal or 
participial, are usually included among common nouns. 
The name of a thing sui generis is also called common. 

A collective noun, or noun of multitude, is 
the name of many individuals together ; as, Council^ 
meeting, committee, flock. 

An abstract noun is the name of some particular 
quality considered apart from its substance ; as, Goodness, 
hardness, pride, frailty. 

A verbal or participial noun is the name of some 
action or state of being, and is formed from a verb, like a 
participle, but employed as a noun ; as, " The triumphing 
of the wicked is short." — Jobxx., 5. 



Louis's. 47 

A thing sui generis (i.e., of its own peculiar kind), is 
something which is distinguished, not as an individual of 
a species, but as a sort by itself, without plurality in either 
the noun or the sort of thing ; as, Galvanism, music, 
geometry. 

Obs. 1. — The proper name of a person or place with an article pre- 
fixed, is generally used as a common noun ; as, "He is the Cicero of his 
age," — that is, the orator. — "Many a fiery Alp," — that is, mountain : 
except when a common noun is understood; as, The [river] Hudson, 
— The [ship] Amity, — The treacherous [man] Judas. 

Obs. 2. — A common noun with the definite article prefixed to it, 
sometimes becomes proper ; as, The Park, — The Strand. 

Obs. 3. — The common name of a thing or quality personified often 
becomes proper; as, " 'My power,' said Reason, 'is to advise, not to 
compel. ' " — Johnson. 

Modifications. 

Nouns have modifications of four kinds; namely, 
persons, numbers, genders, and cases. 

Persons. 

Persons, in grammar, are modifications that distin- 
guish the speaker, the hearer, and the person or thing 
merely spoken of. 

There are three persons : the first, the second, and 
the third. 

The first person is that which denotes the speaker 
or writer ; as, " I Paul have written it." 

The second person is that which denotes the hearer 
or the person addressed ; as, " Robert, who did this ? " 

The third person is that which denotes the person 
or thing merely spoken of ; as, " James loves his bookP 

Obs. 1. — In written language, the first person denotes the writer or 
author ; and the second, the reader or person addressed : except when 
the writer describes not himself, but some one else, as uttering to an- 
other the words which he records. 



48 ETYMOLOGY. 

Obs. 2. — The speaker seldom refers to himself by name as the speaker ; 
consequently, nouns are rarely used in the first person ; and when they 
are, a pronoun is usually prefixed to them. Hence some grammarians 
deny the first person to nouns altogether. 

Obs. 3. — When a speaker or writer does not choose to declare himself 
in the first person, or to address his hearer or reader in the second, he 
speaks of both or either in the third. Thus Moses relates what Moses 
did, and Csesar records the achievements of Ccesar. So Judah humbly 
beseeches Joseph : " Let thy servant abide in stead of the lad a bond- 
man to my lord." — Gen. xliv., 33. And Abraham reverently intercedes 
with God: "Oh! let not the Lord be angry, and I will speak." — Gen. 
xviii., 30. 

Obs. 4. — When inanimate things are spoken to, they are personified ; 
and their names are put in the second person, because by the figure the 
objects are supposed to be capable of hearing. 



Numbers. 

Numbers, in grammar, are modifications that dis- 
tinguish unity and plurality. 

There are two numbers ; the singular and the plural. 

The singular number is that which denotes but 
one ; as, " The hoy learns." 

The plural number is that which denotes more than 
one ; as, " The hoys learn." 

The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by add- 
ing s or es to the singular ; as, hook, hooks ; hox, boxes. 

Mules for forming tlie JPlural* 

General. 

I. — When the singular ends in a sound which will unite with that of 
s, the plural is generally formed by adding s only, and the number of 
syllables is not increased : as, pen, pens ; grape, grapes. 

II. — But when the sound of s cannot be united with that of the primi- 
tive word, the plural adds s to final e, and es to other terminations, and 
forms a separate syllable : as, page, pages ; fox, foxes. 



nouns. 49 

Special. 

I. — Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add es, but do not 
increase the number of syllables: as, hero, heroes; potato, potatots ; 
mosquito, mosquitoes. The exceptions to this rule appear to be in such 
nouns as are not fully Anglicised ; as, cantos, juntos, solos, etc. Other 
nouns in o add s only : as, folio, folios ; bamboo, bamboos. 

II. — Common nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y 
into ?', and add ?.«, without increase of syllables: as, fly, flies ; duty, duties. 
Other nouns in y add 5 only: as, day, days; valley, valleys. So like- 
wise proper names in y are sometimes varied ; as, Henry, the Henrys. 

III. — The following nouns in /, change / into v, and add es, for the 
plural: sheaf, leaf, loaf, beef, thief, calf, haf, elf, shelf, self, wolf 
wharf; as, sheaves, leaves, etc. Life, lives ; knife, knives ; wife, wives ; 
are similar. Staff makes staves, though the compounds of staff are 
regular ; as, flagstaff, flagstaff's. The greater number of nouns in / and 
fe, are regular ; as, fifes, strifes, chiefs, griefs, gulfs, etc. 

IV. — The following are still more irregular : man, men; woman, women; 
child, children; brother, brethren [or brothers'] ; foot, feet; ox, oxen; 
tooth, teeth ; goose, geese ; louse, lice ; mouse, mice ; die, dice ; penny, 
pence. Hies- stamps, and pennies - coins, are regular. 

V. — Many foreign nouns retain their original plural: as, arcanum^ 
arcana ; datum, data ; erratum, errata ; effluvium, effluvia ; medium, 
media [or mediums'] ; minutia, minutim ; stratum, strata ; stamen, 
stamina ; genus, genera ; genius, genii [geniuses, for men of wit] / 
magus, magi ; radius, radii ; appendix, appendices [or appendixes] ; 
calx, calces ; index, indices [or indexes] ; vortex, vortices ; axis, axes ; 
basis, bases; crisis, crises; thesis, theses; antithesis, antitheses; dicer e- 
sis y dicereses ; ellipsis, ellipses ; emphasis, emphases ; hypothesis, hypoth- 
eses ; metamorphosis, metamorphoses ; automaton, automata; criterion, 
criteria [or criterions] ; phenomenon, phenomena ; cherub, cherubim ; 
teraph, seraphim ; beau, beaux [or beans']. 

VI. — When a title is prefixed to a proper name so as to form a sort of 
compound, the name, and not the title, is varied to form the plural ; 
as, The Miss Howards, — The two Mr. Clarks. But a title not regarded 
as a part of one compound name, must be made plural, if it refer to 
more than one: as, Messrs. Lambert and Son, — The Lords Calthorpe 
and Erskine, — The Lords Bishops of Durham and St. David's, — The 
Lords Commissioners of Justiciary. 

VII. — Compounds in which the principal word is put first, vary the 
principal word to form the plural, and the adjunct to form the posses- 
sive case : as, Sing, father-in-law, Plur. fathers-in-law, Foss. father-in- 
law's; — Sing, court-martial, Plur. courts-martial, Poss. court-martiaVs. 
The possessive plural of such nouns is never used. 
3 



50 ETYMOLOGY. 

VIII. — Compounds ending inful, and all those in which the principq 
word is put last, form the plural in the same manner as other nouns ; 
as, handfuls, spoonfuls, moulhfuls, fellow-servants, man-servants, out- 
pourings, ingatherings, downsittings. 

IX. — Proper names of individuals, strictly used as such, have no plural ; 
but when several persons of the same name are spoken of, the noun 
becomes in some degree common, and admits the plural form and an 
article ; as, The Stuarts, —The Ccesars. So likewise when such nouns 
are used to denote character ; as, " The Aristotles, the Tullys, and the 
livys." 



Obs. 1. — Some nouns (from the nature of the things meant) have no 
plural ; as, gold, pride, meekness. 

Obs. 2. — Some nouns have no singular ; as, ides, measles, tidings, 
victuals, scissors, tongs, vespers, literati. 

Obs. 3. — The proper names of nations and societies are generally 
plural ; and, except in a direct address, they are usually construed with 
the definite article ; as, The Greeks, — The Jesuits. 



Obs. 4. — Some nouns are alike in both numbers; as, sheep, deer, 
vermin, swine, hose, means, odds, news, species, series, apparatus. The 
following are sometimes construed as singular, but more frequently and 
more properly, as plural : alms, amends, pains, riches, etMcs, mathe- 
matics, metaphysics, optics, politics, pneumatics, and other similar names 
of sciences. Belloics and gallows are properly alike in both numbers 
(as, "Let a gallows be made." — Esther v., 14. "The belloics are 
burned." — Jer. vi., 29); but they have a regular plural in vulgar use. 
Bolus, fungus, isthmus, prospectus, and rebus, admit the regular plural. 

Obs. 5. — Nouns of multitude, when taken collectively, generally ad- 
mit the plural form ; as, meeting, meetings ; but when taken distribu- 
tive^, they may have a plural signification without the form ; as, " The 
jury xoere convinced." 

Obs. 6. — When other parts of speech become nouns, they either want 
the plural, or form it regularly, like common nouns of the same end- 
ings ; as, "His affairs went on at sixes and sevens." — Arbuthnot. "Some 
mathematicians have proposed to compute by twos ; others, by fours ; 
others, by twelves.'" — Churchill. "Three fourths, nine tenths." — Id. 
1 ' Time's takings and leavings. " — Barton . ' ' The yeas and nays. " — Neics- 
paper. " The ays and noes. " — Ibid. "The ins and Hie outs."— Ibid. 
"His ands and his ors." — Mott. "One of the buts." — Fowle. "In 
raising the mirth of stupids." — Steele. 



NOUNS. 51 

Genders. 

Genders, in grammar, are modifications that distin- 
guish objects in regard to sex. 

There are three genders: the masculine, the femi- 
nine, and the neuter. 

The masculine gender is that which denotes 
persons or animals of the male kind ; as, mem, father, 
king. 

The feminine gender is that which denotes per- 
sons or animals of the female kind ; as, woman, mother, 
queen. 

The neuter gender is that which denotes things 
that are neither male nor female ; as, pen, ink, paper. 

Some nouns may be applied to either sex ; as, cousin, friend, 
neighbor, parent, person, servant. Such nouns are usually said 
to be of the common gender. Sometimes the sex can be de- 
termined by the context. 

Obs. — Gender is to be distinguished from sex, the latter being a dis- 
tinction of animals ; the former of words, in regard to the sex which 
they denote. There are obviously four classes of nouns in this regard : 
1. The names of males ; 2. The names of females ; 3. Names common to 
both ; and 4. Names of things without sex. — Editor. 

The sexes are distinguished in three ways : 

I. By the use of different names : as, bachelor, maid ; boy, girl ; 
brother, sister ; buck, doe ; bull, cow ; cock, hen ; drake, duck ; earl, 
countess ; father, mother ; friar, nun ; gander, goose ; hart, roe ; horse, 
mare ; husband, wife ; king, queen ; lad, lass ; lord, lady ; man, 
tcoman ; master, mistress ; milter, spawner ; nephew, niece; ram, ewe; 
sloven, slut; son, daughter; stag, hind; steer, heifer; uncle, aunt; 
wizard, loitch. 

II. By the use of different terminations : as, abbot, abbess ; adminis- 
trator, administratrix ; adulterer, adulteress ; bridegroom, bride ; 
caterer, cateress ; duke, duchess ; emperor, emperess or empress ; execu- 
tor, executrix; governor, governess ; hero, heroine; landgrave, landgra- 
vine; margrave, margravine ; marquis, marchioness; sorcerer, sorcer- 
ess ; sultan, sidtaness or sultana ; testator, testatrix ; tutor, tutoress or 
tutress ; widower, icidow. 



52 ETYMOLOGY. 

The following nouns become feminine by merely adding ess : baron, 
deacon, heir, host, jew, lion, mayor, patron, peer, poet, priest, prior, 
prophet, shepherd, viscount. 

The following nouns become feminine by rejecting the last vowel and 
adding ess : actor, ambassador, arbiter, benefactor, chanter, conductor, 
doctor, elector, enchanter, founder, hunter, idolator, inventor, prince, 
protector, songster, spectator, suitor, tiger, traitor, votary. 

ILL By prefixing an attribute of distinction : as, cock-sparrow, hen- 
sparrow ; manservant, maid-servant; he-gout, she-goat ; male relations, 
female relations. 

Obs. 1. — The names of things without life, used literally, are always 
of the neuter gender. But inanimate objects are often represented 
figuratively as having sex. Things remarkable for power, greatness, 
or sublimity, are spoken of as masculine ; as, the sun, Ume, death, sleep, 
fear, anger, winter, war. Things beautiful, amiable, or prolific, are 
spoken of as feminine ; as, the moon, earth, nature, fortune, knowledge, 
hope, spring, peace. 

Obs. 2. — Nouns of multitude, when they convey the idea of unity, 
or take the plural form, are of the neuter gender ; but when they con- 
vey the idea of plurality without the form, they follow the gender of 
the individuals that compose the assemblage. 

Obs. 3.— Creatures whose sex is unknown, or unnecessary to be re- 
garded, are generally spoken of as neuter; as, "He fired at the deer, 
and wounded it." — " If a man shall steal an ox or a sheep, and kill it or 
sell it" etc. — Exodus xxii., 1. 

Cases. 

Cases, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish 
the relations of nouns and pronouns to other words. 

There are three cases: the nominative, the pos- 
sessive, and the objective. 

The nominative case is that form or state of a 
noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a 
finite verb : as, " The loy runs ; / run." 

Obs. — A finite verb is a verb that may be used as the predicate verb 
in any simple proposition : as, " Fire burns ; " " Water flows. " In the 
sentence, u He seemed to listen," there are two verbs: seemed, a finite 
verb, and to listen, which is not a finite verb, because it could not form 
the predicate of any proposition. 



nouns . 53 

The possessive case is that form or state of a noun 
or pronoun, which usually denotes the relation of property : 
as, " The hoy's hat ; my hat." 

Obs. 1.- The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the singular num- 
ber, by adding to the nominative s preceded by an apostrophe; and, in 
the plural, when the nominative ends in s, by adding an apostrophe 
only :. as, singular, boy's ; plural, boys' ; — sounded alike, but written 
differently. 

Obs. 2. — Plural nouns that do not end in s, usually form the posses- 
sive case in the same manner as the singular ; as, man's, men's. 

Obs. 3. — The apostrophe and s are sometimes added to mere charac- 
ters, to denote plurality, and not the possessive case ; as, Two a's — three 
b's — four 9's. In the following example, they are used to give the sound 
of a verbal termination to words that are not properly verbs : ' ' When a 
man in a soliloquy reasons with himself, and pro's and con's, and weighs 
all his designs," etc. — Gongreve. 

The objective case is that form or state of a noun 
or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, 
participle, or preposition: as, "I know the hoy j he knows 
me? 

Obs. — There are sometimes used in connection with a sentence, words 
that form no part of its structure. Such words are said to be indepen- 
dent. A noun or a pronoun may be independent in various ways : 

1. The name of a person or thing addressed ; as" John, when will 
you go ? "— " O ye of little faith ! " 

2. The name of a person or thing which is the subject of an exclama- 
tion ; as, "Alas, poor Yorick / " 

3. An expletive word, used merely to make the subject or object 
emphatic ; as, " The Spring — she is a blessed thing ! " — " Gad, a troop 
shall overcome him." 

Such nouns and pronouns, although independent in state, require the 
form of the nominative case, and therefore, io parsing, should be said 
to be in that case. Interjections are always independent. 

The Declension of Nouns. 

The declension of a noun is a regulai arrangement 
of its numbers and cases. Thus : — 



54 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Example I. — Friend. 



Sing. Nodi. 


friend, Plur. Nom. 


friends, 


Poss. 


friend's, Poss. 


friends', 


Obj. 


friend ; Obj. 
Example IT. — Man. 


friends. 


Sing. Nom. 


man, Plur. Nam. 


men, 


• Poss. 


man's, Poss. 


men's, 


Obj. 


man ; Obj. 
Example III.— Fox. 


men. 


Sing. Nom. 


fox, Plur. Nom. 


foxes, 


Poss. 


fox's, Poss. 


foxes', 


Obj. 


fox ; Obj. 
Example IV. — Fly. 


foxes. 


Sing. Nom. 


fly, Plur. Nom. 


flies, 


Poss. 


fly's, Poss. 


flies', 


Obj. 


fly ; Obj. 


flies. 



V.— ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 

Analysis is the separation of a sentence into the parts 
which compose it. 

Obs. — The difference between analysis and parsing is this : in the 
former, only those distinctions are considered which are common to all 
languages, since every sentence must consist of a subject and a predi- 
cate and the words subordinate to these ; but in parsing those distinc- 
tions and peculiarities are noted which characterize different languages, 
and give rise to particular rules. 

A Simple Sentence is one that contains only one 
proposition ; as, " Fire burns." — " The truth will prevail." 

A phrase is a combination of two or more words express- 
ing some relation of ideas, but no entire proposition ; as, " Of 
a good disposition." — " By the means appointed." 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 55 

The subject of a sentence generally consists of a noun or a 
pronoun, with or without adjuncts ; the predicate of a sen- 
tence consists of a verb, with or without adjuncts. 

Words added directly to either of the principal parts are sometimes 
called primary adjuncts ; as, " Good books always deserve a careful 
perusal." Words added to other adjuncts are called secondary 
adjuncts; as, "Suddenly acquired wealth very rarely brings happi- 
ness. " 

Adjuncts are divided, with respect to their office, into 
three classes; namely, adjective, adverbial, and ex- 
planatory. 

An adjective adjunct is one used to modify or limit a 
noun or a pronoun ; as, "Both those bad boys deserve severe 
punishment." 

An adverbial adjunct is one used like an adverb ; as, 
" Eemember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth" 

An explanatory adjunct is one used to explain a pre- 
ceding noun or pronoun ; as, "The emperor Napoleon was 
banished." — "We, the people, ordain this constitution." 

Nouns may be modified by adjuncts of various forms : — 

1. An article or an adjective ; as, " The diligent scholar improves." 

2. A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case; as, "William's sister 
has lost her book." 

3. A verb used as an adjective ; as, " The desire to excel is laudable." 

4. K preposition and its object, used together as an adjective; as, "A 
man of integrity obeys the dictates of conscience. 1 '' 

5. Knoun or pronoun used as an explanatory adjunct; as, "His 
brother Charles is idle." 

Verbs may be modified by adverbial adjuncts of various forms : — 

1. An adverb ; as, " The sun shines brightly" 

2. A preposition and its object, used together as an adverb; as, "He 
came from Boston. " 

An adjective, participle, noun, or pronoun, used in the 
predicate of a sentence, but relating to the subject, is called 
an attribute ; as, "Gold is yellow." — " The sun is shining. " 
— "Honesty is the best -policy." 



56 ETYMOLOGY. 

Obs. — The attribute, when it is a noun or a pronoun, is in the sam« 
case as the subject to which it refers; as, "it is i, be not afraid."-' 
" Who is she ? " — " They believed it to be me." 

In analyzing a single sentence, point out : — 

1. The subject. 

2. The predicate. 

3. The subject noun and its adjuncts. 

4. The predicate verb and its adverbial adjuncts. 
~ j The object and its adjuncts, or 

1 The attribute and its adjuncts. 

Exercises in Analysis and Parsing. 

Praxis II. — Etymological. 

In the Second Praxis, it is required of the -pupil : to classify and ana- 
lyze the sentence as in the preceding praxis ; to point out, in addition, 
the adjuncts in each of the principal parts, and distinguish their classes ; 
and to parse the sentence by distinguishing the different parts of speech, 
and the classes and modifications of the nouns, distinguishing also the 
article as definite or indefinite. Thus : — 

Example 1. — Analyzed and Parsed. 

"The Athenians carefully observed Solon's wise laws." 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is the Athenians ; th« 
predicate is carefully observed Solon's wise laws. The subject noun is Athenians, 
limited by the adjunct the ; the predicate verb is observed, and its adjuncts are the ad- 
verb carefully and the object laics ; the adjuncts of the object are Solon's and wise. 

Parsing. — The is the definite article, because it limits the noun Athenians. 

Athenians is a proper noun, because it is the name of a particular people ; of the third 
person, because they are 6poken of; of the plural number, because the noun denotes 
more than one ; of the common gender, because it includes both sexes ; and in the nomi- 
native case, because it is the subject of the verb observed. 

Carefully is an adverb, because it is added to the verb observed, and expresses 
manner. 

Observed is a verb, because it expresses action. 

Solon's is a proper noun, because it is the name of a particular individual ; it is of the 
third person, singular number, masculine gender, and in the possessive case, because it 
indicates the possession of laics. 

Wixe is an adjective, because it is added to the noun laws. 

Laws is a common noun, because it is the name of a class of things ; of the third per- 
son, plural number, neuter gender, and in the objective case, because it is the object ot 
the verb observed. 



ANALYSIS, PAESING, AND CONSTKTTCTION. 57 

Integrity inspires confidence. Perseverance overcomes all obstacles. 
Generosity always makes friends. Pleasure's call always wins an eager 
attention. Avarice rapidly extinguishes every generous sentiment 
The study of astronomy greatly elevates the mind. The enterprising 
merchant has just returned from Europe. Every person highly praised 
William's noble conduct. Riotous indulgence very soon destroys the 
bodily vigor. Where did your kind father purchase that interesting 
book ? Charles's resignation filled all Europe with astonishment. In- 
dulgence in sloth can never lead to prosperity. The beautiful scenes 
of nature ever excite the admiration of mankind. 



Example 2.— Analyzed. 

Filial ingratitude is a shameful crime. 

A simple declarative sentence. 

Subject, filial ingratitude ; predicate, is a shameful crime. 
Subject noun, ingratitude ; adjunct, filial. 

Predicate verb, is ; adjunct, the attribute crime ; adjuncts of the attribute, a and 
shameful. 

Honesty is the best policy. Liberty is a great blessing. Rose leaves 
are very fragrant. William soon became a very good scholar. The 
contract was pronounced fraudulent. Cool blows the summer breeze. 
The sky suddenly grew black. The soul of the diligent shall be made 
fat. The memory of mischief is no desirable fame. He was born a 
lord. Washington was twice elected President. How wonderful is 
sleep ! When was Victoria crowned queen of England ? Columbus 
was undoubtedly an extraordinary man. The distant hills look blue. 
The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom. 



Construction and Composition. 

Construction is the combination of words into sen* 
tences. 

Composition is the combination of sentences to ex- 
press connected thought. 

Obs. — In a composition the sentences are related to each other by the 
thoughts which they express. Without this connection, or logical rela- 
tion, sentences do not form a composition. Thus the sentences in the 
preceding exercise for analysis do not form a composition, because the 
thoughts which they express are not logically related to one another. 



58 ETYMOLOGY. 

Exercises. 
Construct the following:— 

A sentence with a noun, a verb, and adjuncts of each. 

A sentence with a subject noun, a predicate verb, and an object with iU 
adjuncts. 

A sentence witli a subject pronoun, a predicate verb, and an attributt 
noun, with or without adjuncts. 

A sentence with an adjective attribute, with or without adjuncts. 

Write three sentences of any of these kinds describing a tree. 

Write four sentences describing a fish. 

Write five sentences about a clock. 

Write several sentences forming a short composition upon a horse. 

Cautions. 

1. Do not use the same word too often, nor express the 
rfame thought more than once. 

2. Avoid all slang expressions. 

3. Do not use too many short sentences in succession. Join 
dome of them together so as to make the style more pleasing. 

4. Be careful to spell all the words correctly, to use capitals 
according to the rules, and to place a period at the end of 
each sentence. When sentences are united, they should be 
separated by a comma (,). Phrases should also, usually, be 
$et off by a comma. 

Criticise the following : — 

The Owl. 

The owl is a curious kind of bird. It has curious large 
«*yes. It cannot see in the Light, it hides away in the day- 
time in dark places, the sun dazzles his eyes. He comes out 
at night and goes flying around looking after his prey. It 
catches birds and moles and mice and other animals it also 
catches insects. There are a good many kinds of owls, such 
as the Eagle owl, the Cat owl the Screech owl and others. 
Did you ever hear an Owl hoot in the night ? It makes a Kind 
of mournful sound, i was awfully scared one night hearing a 
screech owl in the woods. I couldn't think what it was. Owls 
are very funny creatures. 



ADJECTIVES. 59 

Faults. — The ideas are not well arranged. Certain words, curious, 
it, etc. , are repeated in close succession. There are too many short sen- 
tences coming together, making the style unpleasant. There are repeti- 
tions of the same thought, in the first and last sentences ; and there are 
mistakes in capitals and punctuation. Some of the words are ill-chosen, 
and there are slang expressions. 

In the following these faults are corrected. 

The Owl. 

The owl is a curious bird. It has large eyes like those of a 
cat ; and during the day, it hides away in dark places, be- 
cause it is not able to bear the dazzling light of the sun. At 
night it flies about, seeking its prey, which consists of birds, 
mice, moles, insects, etc. There are several kinds of owls, as 
the eagle owl, the screech owl, and the cat owL Some of 
these birds are quite large. The hooting of an owl at night 
is a very dismal sound ; and once, when I heard a screech owl 
in the woods, I was really frightened, for I did not know what 
it was. Did you ever hear an owl hoot ? 

Write a similar composition on each of the following subjects. 

The Horse. The Cow. The Eagle. The Camel. < The Elephant. 
The Lion. The Ostrich. The Canary Bird. The Mocking Bird. The 
Crow. 



VI.— ADJECTIVES. 



An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, 
and generally expresses quality. 

Classes. 

Adjectives may be divided into six classes; namely, 
common, proper, numeral, pronominal, par- 
ticipial, and compound. 

A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or 
adjective denoting quality or situation ; as, Good, bad, 
peaceful, warlike — eastern, western, outer, inner. 



60 ETYMOLOGY. 

A proper adjective is one that is formed from a 
proper name ; as, American, English, Platonic. 

A numeral adjective is one that expresses a defi- 
nite nnmber ; as, One, two, three, four, five, six, etc. 

Obs. — Numeral adjectives are of three kinds: — 

1. Cardinal; as, One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, 
ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, etc. 

2. Ordinal; as, First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, 
eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, etc. 

3. Multiplicative; as, Single or alone, double or twofold, triple or 
threefold, quadruple or fourfold, quintuple or fivefold, sextuple or six- 
fold, septuple or sevenfold, octuple or eightfold, etc. 

A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which 
may either accompany its noun, or represent it understood ; 
as, "All [men] join to guard what each [man] desires to 
gain." 

Obs. 1. — The following are the principal pronominal adjectives: AU, 
any, both, certain, divers, each, either, else, enough, every, few, former, 
first, latter, last, little, less, least, much, many, more, most, neither ; no 
or none, one, only, other, own, same, several, some, such, this, that, these, 
those, which, what. 

Obs. 2. — A pronominal adjective, as the name implies, partakes of 
the nature of a pronoun, and may be considered as representing the 
noun, when nolf expressed, and therefore as having the modifications of 
a noun. Sometimes, however, the noun may be supplied. 

A participial adjective is one that has the form 
of a participle, but differs from it by rejecting the idea of 
time ; as, An amusing story. 

Obs. — A participial adjective is a participle used as an adjective. As 
a participle it conveys the idea of time ; as, "The sun rising, darkness 
is dispelled." That is, When the sun rises. But as an adjective it ex- 
presses quality or condition ; as, ' ' The rising sun dispels the darkness. " 

A compound adjective is one that consists of two 
or more words joined together ; as, Xut-lrown, laughter- 
loving, four-footed. 



ADJECTIVES. 61 



Exercise. 



Classify the adjectives in the folio icing, and state to what sub-class each 
of the numeral adjectives belongs ; — 

Brave soldiers. Innocent children. Beautiful pictures. The French 
army. The Copernican system. A charming prospect. A loving son. 
A detested crime. The lowing herd. The triple alliance. Fifty cents. 
Wholesome food. Luscious fruit. An inner apartment. Outer dark- 
ness. A coal-black horse. The sixteenth century. An old-fashioned 
clock. Many persons. Much difficulty. A Grecian fable. The Pla- 
tonic system. A fresh-looking maid. Double length. A beloved 
child. Torturing anxiety. A sharp-witted boy. 

Modifications. 

Adjectives have, commonly, no modifications but the 
forms of comparison. 

Obs. — This and that are modified so as to agree with their nouns in 
number, thus: this, these; that, those. 

Comparison is a variation of the adjective, to express 
quality in different degrees'; as, hard, harder, hardest. 

There are three degrees of comparison : the positive, 
the comparative, and the superlative. 

The positive degree is that which is expressed by 
the adjective in its simple form ; as, hard, soft, good. 

The comparative degree is that which exceeds the 
positive ; as, harder, softer, tetter. 

The superlative degree is that which is not ex- 
ceeded ; as, hardest, softest, best. 

Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of 
different degree, cannot be compared ; as, two, second, all, 
total, immortal, infinite. 

Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not 
in form, are compared by means of adverbs ; as, skillful, 
more skillful, most skillful — skillful, less skillful, least 
skillful. 



62 ETYMOLOGY. 

Obs.— Adjectives of more than one syllable, except dissyllables ending 
in y or mute e, rarely admit a change of termination, but are rather 
compared by means of the adverbs. Thus we say, virtuous, more virtu- 
ous, most virtuous ; but not virtuous, virtuouser, virtuousest. 

Regular Comparison. 

Adjectives are regularly compared, when the conrparative 
degree is expressed by adding er, and the superlative, by add- 
ing est to them ; as, 



Positive. 


Go?nparative. 


Superlative. 


great, 


greater, 


greatest. 


wide, 


wider, 


widest. 


hot, 


hotter, 


hottest. 



The regular method of comparison is chiefly applicable to 
monosyllables, and to dissyllables ending in y or mute e. 

Comparison by Adverbs. 

The different degrees of a quality may also be expressed, 
with precisely the same import, by prefixing to the adjective 
the adverbs more and most : as, ivise, more ivise, most ivise ; 
famous, more famous, most famous ; amiable, more amiable, 
most amiable. 

The degrees of diminution are expressed, in like manner, 
by the adverbs less and least : as, wise, less ivise, least wise ; 
famous, less famous, least famous ; amiable, less amiable, least 
amiable. 

Obs. — The prefixing of an adverb can hardly be called a valuation of 
the adjective : the words may with more propriety be taken separately, 
the degree being ascribed to the adverb, or to both words ; for both are 
varied in, sense by the inflection of the former. 

Irregular Comparison. 

The following adjectives are compared irregularly : good, 
better, best ; bad or ill, worse, worst ; little, less, least ; much, 
more, most; many, more, most. 



ADJECTIVES. 63 

Most adjectives that denote place or situation, not only form the super- 
lative irregularly, hut are also either redundant or defective in compari- 
son. Thus: — 

I. — The following nine have more than one superlative : far, farther, 
farthest, farmost or farthermost ; near, nearer, nearest or next ; fo?'e, 
former, foremost or first; hind, hinder, hindmost or hindermost ; in, 
inner, inmost or innermost ; out, outer or utter, outmost or utmost, out- 
ermost or uttermost ; up, upper, upmost or uppermost ; low, lower, low- 
est or lowermost ; late, later or latter, latest or last. 

II. — The following five want the positive : [aft, adv. ] after, aftmost or 
aftermost; [forth, adv.] further, furthest or furthermost; hither, 
Mthermost ; nether, nethermost; under, undermost. 

III. — The following want the comparative: front, fr outmost ; rear, 
rearmost ; head, headmost ; end, endmost ; top, topmost ; bottom, bottom- 
most ; mid or middle, midst, midmost or middlemost ; north, northmost ; 
south, southmost ; northern, northernmost; southern, southernmost; 
eastern, easternmost ; western, westernmost. 

Obs. 1. — It may be remarked of the comparatives, former and latter 
or hinder, upper and under or nether, inner and outer or utter, after and 
hither ; as well as of the Latin superior and inferior, anterior and pos- 
terior, interior and exterior, prior and ulterior, senior and. junior, major 
and minor ; that they cannot, like other comparatives, he construed 
with the conjunction than, introducing the latter term of comparison ; 
for we never say, one thing is former, superior*, etc. , than another. 

Obs. 2. — Pronominal adjectives, when their nouns are expressed, 
simply relate to them, and have no modifications : except this and that, 
which form the plural these and those ; much, many ; and a few others, 
which are compared. 



Exercise. 

Compare such of the following adjectives as can be compared, regularly, 
irregularly, or by means of adverbs, as each may require : — 

Clear, obscure, certain, full, probable, possible, clever, sagacious, 
weary, hard, awkward, amiable, new, old, general, perfect, able, grace- 
ful, little, much, many, virtuous, bad, rear, middle, low, late, after, 
universal, distinct, thoughtless, willful, cautious, negligent, discreet, 
inconsiderate, unquestionable, vague, correct, immortal. 



(34 ETYMOLOGY. 

VII.— PRONOUNS. 
A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

Classes. 

Pronouns are divided into three classes; personal, 
relative, and interrogative. 

A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows by its 
form, of what person it is. 

Obs. — That is, the word itself shows whether it is of the first, second, 
or third person. 

The sinvple personal pronouns are five : namely, /, of 
the first person ; thou, of the second person ; he, she, and 
it, of the third person. 

The compound personal pronouns are also five : namely, 
myself, of the first person ; thyself, of the second person ; 
himself, herself, and itself, of the third person. 

Obs. — The compound personal pronouns are used when an action 
reverts upon the agent, or for special emphasis ; as, "He has injured 
himself." — " She herself was to blame." 

A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an 
antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses 
of a sentence. 

The relative pronouns are who, which, what, and that ; 
and the compounds, whoever or whosoever, whichever or 
whichsoever, whatever or whatsoever. 

What is a kind of double relative, equivalent to that 
which or those ivhich / and is therefore to be considered as 
including both the antecedent and the relative. 

An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun with which 
a question is asked. 

The interrogative pronouns are icho, which, and what; 
bein^ the same in form as relatives. 



PROTTOUXS. 65 

Obs. 1. — Who is usually applied to persons only ; which, though for- 
merly applied to persons, is now confined to animals and inanimate 
things ; what (as a mere pronoun) is applied to things only ; that is 
applied indifferently to persons, animals, or things. 

Obs. 2.— The pronoun what, having a twofold relation, represents 
two cases at the same time ; as, "He is ashamed of what he has done ; " 
that is, of that [thing] which he has done. It is usually of the singular 
number, though sometimes plural ; as, "I must turn to the faults, or 
what appear such to me." — Byron. 

Obs. 3.— What is sometimes used both as an adjective and a relative 
at the same time, and is placed before the noun which it represents ; 
as, " What money we had was taken away ; " that is, All the money that 
we had, etc. — " What man but enters, dies;" that is, Any man who, 
etc. The compound whatever or whatsoever has the same peculiarities 
of construction ; as, ' ' We will certainly do whatsoever thing goeth forth 
out of our own mouth." — Jer. xliv. , 17. 

Obs. 4. — Who, which, and what, when the affix ever or soever is added, 
have an unlimited signification ; and, as some general term, such as any 
person, or any thing, is usually employed as the antecedent, they are all 
commonly followed by two verbs ; as, " Whoever attends, will improve ; " 
that is, Any person who attends, will improve. In analysis and parsing, 
supply the antecedent. 

Obs. 5. — The word as, though usually a conjunction or an adverb, 
has sometimes the construction of a relative pronoun ; as, ' ' The Lord 
added to the church daily such [persons] as should be saved." — Acts 
ii., 47. 

Obs. 6. — Whether was formerly used as an interrogative pronoun, 
referring to one of two things ; as, ' ' Whether is greater, the gold or the 
temple ? " — Matt, xxiii. , 17. 

Obs. 7. — Interrogative pronouns represent their nouns understood, 
like pronominal adjectives; as, "What [deed] hast thou done ? " 
11 Which of these books will you have ? " That is, Which book, etc. 

Modifications. 

Pronouns have the same modifications as nouns; 
namely, Persons, Numbers, Genders, and Cases. 

Obs. 1.— In the personal pronouns, most of these properties are indi- 
cated by the words themselves ; in the relative pronoun, it is necessary 
to refer to the antecedent which it represents ; and in the interrogative, 



66 ETYMOLOGY. 

to the word, usually in the answer, which it represents; as, "Who 
comes here ? A friend." 

Obs. 2. — The gender of the personal pronouns of the first and second 
person is to he determined hy referring to the words for which they 
are used, or to he considered as of the common gender. 

Declension of Pronouns. 

The declension of a pronoun is a regular arrangement of 
its numbers and cases. 

The sinrple personal pronouns are thus declined : — 

I, of the first person. 

Sing. Norn. I, Plur. Nom. we, 

Poss. my, or mine, Poss. our, or ours, 

Obj. me ; Obj. us. 

Thou, of the second person. 

Sing. Nom. thou, Plur. Nom. ye, or you, 

Poss. thy, or thine, Poss. your, or yours, 

Obj. thee ; Obj. you. 

He, of the third person. 

Sing. Nom. he, Plur. Nom. they, 

Poss. his, Poss. their, or theirs, 

Obj. him ; Obj. them. 

She, of the third person. 

Sing. Nom. she, Plur. Nom. they, 

Poss. her, or hers, Poss. their, or theirs, 

Obj. her ; Obj. them. 

1 1 , of the th ird person. 

Sing. Nom- it, Plur. Nom. they, 

Poss. its, Poss. their, or theirs, 

Obj. it; Obj. them. 



PEONOUNS. §7 

Obs. 1. — Most of the personal pronouns have two forms of the pos- 
sessive case, in each number: as, my or mine, our or ours , thy or 
thine, you or yours ; her or hers, their or theirs. The former is used 
before a noun expressed ; the latter, when the governing noun is under- 
stood, or when the possessive pronoun is used as an attribute ; as, ' ' My 
powers are thine." 

Obs. 2. — Mine and thine were formerly used before all words begin- 
ning with a vowel sound ; my and thy, before others ; as, " It was thou, 
a man, mine equal, my guide, and mine acquaintance." — Psalm. But 
this usage is now obsolete, or peculiar to the poets ; as, 

"Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow." — Byron. 

Obs. 3. — In ancient times, he, liis, and him, were applied to things 
neuter. In our translation of the Bible, the pronoun it is employed in 
the nominative and the objective, but his is retained in the possessive, 
neuter; as, "Look not thou upon the wine, when it is red, when it 
giveth his color in the cup, when it moveth itself aright." — Prov. xxiii., 
31. Its is not found in the Bible, except by misprint. 

Compound Personals. 

The word self, added to the simple personal pronouns, 
forms the class of compound personal pronouns ; which are 
used when an action reverts upon the agent, and also when 
some persons are to be distinguished from others : as, sing. 
myself, plur. ourselves ; sing, thyself, plur. yourselves ; sing. 
himself, plur. themselves ; sing, herself, plur. themselves ; sing. 
itself plur. themselves. They all want the possessive case, and 
are alike in the nominative and objective. 

Relatives and Interrogates. 

The relative and the interrogative pronouns are thus 
declined : — 

Who, applied only to persons. 

Sing. Nom. who, Plur. Nom. who, 

Poss. whose, Poss. whose, 

Obj. whom ; Obj. whom. 



68 ETYMOLOGY. 

Which, applied to animals and i 
Sing. Norn, which, Plur. Norn, which, 



Poss. * Poss. 

Obj. which ; Obj. which, 

What, generally applied to things. 
Sing. Nom. what, Plur. Nom. what, 

Poss. Poss. 

Obj. what; Obj. what. 

That, applied to persons, animals, and things. 

Sing. Nom. that, Plur. Nom. that, 

Poss. Poss. 



Obj. that; Obj. that. 

Compound Relatives. 

The compound relative pronouns, whoever or ivhosoever, 
whichever or whichsoever, and whatever or whatsoever, are de- 
clined in the same manner as the simples, who, which, what. 

Exercises. 

1. Write the nominative plural of the following pronouns : — 

1. thou, he, she, it, who, which, that, what. 

2. Write the objective singular and plural of aU the simple pronouns. 

3. Write the declension of the following : — 

Myself, thyself, himself, herself, itself, whoever, whosoever. 

4. Correct the form of each of the following : — 

Her's, it's, our's, your's, their's, who's, hisself, theirselves. 

5. Write sentences, each containing one of the following pronouns : — 
Me, them, thou, your, their, me, ye, himself, myself, themselves, 

who, which, whom, what, that, whoever, whichever, whomsoever. 

* Wliose is sometimes used as the possessive case of which ; as, *'A religion whose 
origin is divine." 1 — Blair. 



ANALYSIS, PAESING, ATHD CONSTRUCTION. 69 

VIII.— ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 

When simple sentences are connected, they form com- 
pound or complex sentences, and are then called 
clauses. 

A clause, therefore, is a division of a compound or a 
complex sentence. 

Compound or complex clauses are sometimes called mem- 
bers. 

A clause used as one of the principal parts of a sentence, 
or as an adjunct to any word in it, is called a dependent 
clause. 

The clause on which it depends, or of which it forms a part, 

is called the principal clause. 

A complex sentence is one composed of a principal 

clause and one or more dependent clauses. 

A compound sentence is one composed of two or 
more independent clauses. 

Clauses may be connected by conjunctions, relative pro- 
nouns, or adverbs (then called conjunctive adverbs). 

A clause introduced by a relative pronoun, is often called a 
relative clause. 

When two or more subjects, connected by a conjunction, 
belong to the same predicate, or two or more connected predi- 
cates have the same subject, the sentence should be considered 
simple with a compound subject or a compound 
predicate. 

Obs. — The relative clause is a dependent clause, and the sentence in 
which it occurs is therefore complex. It is not, however, always a 
modifying clause, being sometimes used to express an additional fact. 
Thus, in the sentence, "This is the man that committed the deed," the 
relative clause modifies the noun man ; but in the sentence, ' ' I gave 
the book to John, who has lost it," it is equivalent to "and he has lost 
it." In each case it is used like an adjective ; since the same distinction 
applies to adjectives as to relative clauses, some being used to modify, 
others to describe ; as, A wild- beast (modifying) ; The huge elephant 
(descriptive). 



70 ETYMOLOGY. 

Exercises in Analysis and Parsing, 

Praxis Ml.— Etymological. 

In the Third Praxis, it is required of the pupil— to classify the sen- 
tences ; to point out the component clauses ; to analyze and parse each as 
in the preceding praxis ; and to state the classes and modifications of the 
pronouns. Thus :— 

First Example, Analyzed and Parsed. 
"Children who disobey their parents, deserve punishment." 

Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence ; the principal clause is, Children 
deserve punishment, and the dependent clause is, U7to disobey their parents, an adjec- 
tive adjunct of children ; the connective word is who. 

The subject noun of the principal clause is children ; the predicate verb is deserve ; 
and the object is punishment. The adjunct of the subject noun is the dependent clause ; 
the other parts have no adjuncts. The subject of the dependent clause is who ; the 
predicate verb is disobey ; the object is parents ; ■ the adjunct of parents is their. 

Parsing. — Who is a relative pronoun, because it represents the antecedent word 
children, and connects the two clauses of the sentence ; it is of the third person, because 
it represents the persons spoken of ; of the plural number, because it denotes more than 
one ; of the common gender, because it is a term equally applicable to both sexes ; and 
in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb disobey; its declension 
in both numbers is, Nom. who ; Poss. whose ; Obj. whom. 

Their is a personal pronoun, because it shows by its form that it is of the third person ; 
it is of the plural number, common gender, and in the possessive case, because it 
denotes the possession of parents. Its declension is, Nom. they ; Poss. their, or theirs ; 
Obj. them. 

Parse the other words as in the preceding praxes. 

Second Example, Analyzed. 

1 ' Can we see God, or must we believe in him ? " 

A compound interrogative sentence, consisting of two independent clauses connected 
by or. The subject of the first clause is we ; the predicate verb, can see ; and the object, 
God. The subject of the second clause is we ; the predicate verb, must believe, modified 
by the adverbial phrase adjunct in him. 

Prosperity gains many friends, but adversity tries them. 

A wise son heareth his father's instruction, but a scorner heareth not 
rebuke. 

He who conquers his passions, overcomes his greatest enemies. 

You should listen patiently if you would speak effectively. 

Virtue refines the affections, but vice debases them. 

The poems of Homer celebrate the exploits of Achilles, who killed 
the Trojan prince Hector. 






ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 71 

He who runs may read so plain a truth. 

Who that has common sense can entertain so absurd a notion ? 
When will you complete the task which you have undertaken ? 
The eye, that sees all things, cannot see itself. 
They who would govern others must first govern themselves. 
Flattery often succeeds, when reason entirely fails. 
We are often benefited by what we have dreaded. 
Frankness, suavity, and benevolence were prominent traits in the 
character of Dr. Franklin. 

The study of natural history expands and elevates the mind. 

Get justly, use soberly, distribute cheerfully, and live contentedly. 

Industry, good sense, and virtue are essential to happiness. 

Exercises in Construction. 

1. Write five compound sentences, each consisting of two simple clauses 
connected by and or but. 

2. Write five complex sentences, each containing a simple relative clause. 

P unct nation. — The simple clauses composing a compound sentence 
should be separated by a comma ; but when a comma is used to separate 
the parts of either, a semicolon should be employed. 

A relative clause should be separated by a comma, unless it is used as 
a modifying adjunct. 

When a relative clause is a modifying adjunct, it can often 
be changed to an adjective or participle ; and the sentence 
will then become simple. Thus, The pupil who is diligent will 
excel, can be changed to The diligent pupil loill excel. 

Sometimes a phrase consistiDg of a noun and an adjective 
can be substituted for the relative clause and the antecedent. 
Thus, He who labors faithfully will succeed, is equivalent to A 
faithful laborer will succeed. 

Change the following complex into simple sentences by either of the two 
methods above indicated. 

A man who is honest will be trusted. 

Lines that are parallel never meet. 

A king that oppresses his people is hated. 

The key that is used is always bright. 

They pitied and relieved the man who was blind. 

They who slander others break the divine commandment. 



72 ETYMOLOGY. 

He who studies diligently will improve. 
He that tilleth his land shall be satisfied with bread. 
The spoils belong to him who gains the victory. 
Persons who are irritable are unpleasant associates. 

When the relative clause is not a modifying adjunct, the 
sentence can be made compound, by substituting for the rela- 
tive pronoun a conjunction and a personal pronoun. Thus, 
John, who committed the fault, has been forgiven, may be 
changed to, John committed the fault, but he has been forgiven. 

Change in this manner the following complex to compound sentences. 

Use such conjunctions as and, if, but, because, since. 

My friend, who went to Europe, has returned. 

The eye, that sees all things, cannot see itself. 

Captain John Smith, who was taken by the Indians, was saved by 
Pocahontas. 

Mr. Williams, who failed in business last year, has commenced again 

He gave the book to his brother, who has lost it. 

The letter was sent by a messenger, who failed to deliver it. 

The traveler narrated a very curious incident, which was not believed. 

Socrates, who was pronounced by the oracle the wisest of men, was 
put to death by the Athenians. 

Leonidas, who defended the pass of Thermopylae against the Persian 
army, was a great patriot and hero. 

Composition. 

Write a composition consisting of simple, compound, and complex sen- 
tences, describing each of the following objects — stating its use, the parts 
of which it is composed, the material of which each of these parts is made, 
and what different trades or occupations are concerned in its manufac- 
ture. 

A book. A pen. A slate. A stove. A map. A globe. A bell. A dock. 
A carriage. A shoe. A knife. A skate. A carpet. A plough. A silver 
dollar. A bank bill. An umbrella. A house. An earthen jug. A bottle. 
A piano. A ship. A chair. A bureau. A broom. 

[The teacher should supply all information that may be needed by the pupils, in order 
to make the description sufficiently full and accurate, but should be careful that the pupils 
use their own langu ige, and apply the rules and principles a'ready learned. When others 
are violated, the corrections may be made arbitrarily. In this way the habit of correctly 
using language will be cultivated.] 



VEEBS. 73 

IX.— VERBS. 

A verb is a word that signifies to he, to act, or to he 
acted upon. 

Classes. 

Yerbs are divided, with respect to their form, into four 
classes: regular, irregular, redundant, and de- 
fective. 

A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and 
the perfect participle bj assuming cl or ed; as, love, loved, 
loving, loved. 

Obs. 1. — Whether a verb is regular or irregular depends upon the 
changes which it undergoes in order to express differences in the mode, 
time, or other circumstances of the action or being indicated by the 
verb. Thus, the verb walk becomes walked in order to express a past 
action ; while the participle is derived by adding ing or ed; as, walking, 
walked. These additional syllables, which change the primitive form 
of the verb, are called inflections. In some languages they are very 
numerous ; but in English they are quite few, the language in this re- 
spect being very simple. 

Obs. 2. — The preterit is the form for the past. There are four parts 
in every verb from which all others are derived : the present, the past 
or preterit, the imperfect participle (always ending in ing), and the per- 
fect participle. When these are given all the other parts of the verb 
become known. Hence, they are called the principal parts. 

An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the 
preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed * 
as, see, saw, seeing, seen. 

A redundant verb is a verb that forms the preterit 
or the perfect participle in two or more ways, and so as 
to be both regular and irregular; as, thrive, thrived or 
throve, thriving, thrived or thriven. 

A defective verb is a verb that forms no participles, 
and is used in but few of the moods and tenses ; as, heioare, 
ought, guoth. 
4 



74 ETYMOLOGY. 

Obs. — Regular verbs form their preterit and perfect participle, b) 
adding d to final e, and ed to all otlier terminations. Tlie verb hear, 
heard, hearing, heard, adds d to r, and is therefore irregular. 

Verbs are divided again, with respect to tlieir signifi- 
cation, into four classes : active-transitive, active- 
intransitive, passive, and neuter. 

An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses 
an action which has some person or thing for its object ; 
as, " Cain slew Abel" 

An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses 
an action which has no person or thing for its object ; as, 
" John walks" 

A passive verb is a verb that represents its subject, 
or nominative, as being acted upon ; as, " I am com- 
pelled." 

Obs. 1. — It must be understood that a passive verb expresses action, 
but action received not performed by the subject. Thus the object of 
the action becomes the subject of the verb. Hence, every transitive verb 
may be changed into a passive verb, by making the object of the former 
the subject of the latter. 

Obs. 2. — Active-transitive verbs generally take the agent before them 
and the object after them; as, "Caesar conquered Pompey." Passive 
verbs (which are derived from active transitive verbs) reverse this order, 
and denote that the subject, or nominative, is affected by the action ; 
and the agent follows, being introduced by the preposition by; as, 
"Pompey was conquered by Caesar." 

Obs. 3. — An active-intransitive verb, followed by a preposition and 
its object, will sometimes admit of being put into the passive form, the 
object of the preposition being assumed for the nominative, and the 
preposition being retained with the verb, as an adverb : as, {Active,) 
"They laughed at him." — {Passive,) "He was laughed at." 

A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action 
nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being ; as, 
"Thou ^."-"He sleeps? 



VERBS. 75 

Exercises. 

1. Classify all the verbs in the following sentences, both as to form and 
signification. 

[See list of Irregular Verbs, page 98.] 

I mailed the letter. The letter was mailed by me. The horse was 
shod. The pitcher was broken. He has failed in business. The boy 
told an untruth. The ship has sailed. He was chosen president. I 
have written a letter. The boiler burst. The man is honest. He 
walks rapidly. The plant grows. The boy is swimming. The child is 
sleeping. They sat still. Give me a book. Beware of slanderers. 
A child ought to obey his parents. 

2. Construct another sentence from each of the verbs in the above exer- 
cise, using a different form. 

3. Write three sentences, each containing a regular verb ; — also three, 
each containing an irregular verb ; — three, each containing a redundant 
ve7'b ; — and one containing a defective vefrb. 

Modifications. 

The modifications or inflections of verbs are for two pur- 
poses : — 1. To express some particular manner or time of the 
being, action, or passion. 2. To indicate the person and 
number of the subject or nominative. Hence it is said : 

Verbs have modifications of four kinds; namely, 
moods, tenses, persons, and numbers. 

Moods. 

Moods are different forms of the verb, each of which 
expresses the being, action, or passion, in some particular 
manner. 

There are five moods: the infinitive, the indica- 
tive, the potential, the subjunctive, and the 
imperative. 

The infinitive mood is that form of the verb which 
expresses the being, action, or passion, in an unlimited 
manner, and without person or number ; as, To read, to 
speak. 



76 ETYMOLOGY. 

Obs. 1. — The infinitive mood has no person or number, that is, no 
inflections to indicate person or number, because it has no subject nomi- 
native. It may have a subject, that is a word indicating the person or 
thing of whom the being or action is indirectly asserted ; but this word 
must be in the objective case, depending upon some other verb. Thus, 
in the sentence, 1 told John to write, John is the subject of the infini- 
tive write, and the object of the verb told; hence, it is in the objective 
case. 

Obs. 2. — A verb in any other mood than the infinitive, is called, by 
way of distinction, a, finite verb. 

The indicative mood is that form of the verb which 
simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question : 
as, I write ; you know ; Do you know f 

The potential mood is that form of the verb which 
expresses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of the 
being, action, or passion : as, I can read ; we mnst go. 

The subjunctive mood is that form of the verb 
which represents the being, action, or passion, as con- 
ditional, doubtful, and contingent ; as, " If thou go, see 
that thou offend not." 

Obs. — The subjunctive mood is always connected with another verb. 
Its dependence is usually denoted by a conjunction ; as, if, that, though, 
lest, unless. 

The imperative mood is that form of the verb 
which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or 
permitting ; as, " Depart thou." — " Be comforted" 

Tenses. 

Tenses are those modifications of the verb which dis- 
tinguish time. 

There are six tenses; the present, the imperfect, 
the perfect, the pluperfect, the first-future, and 
the second-future. 

The present tense is that which expresses what 
now exists, or is taking place : as, " I hear a noise ; some- 
body is coming" 



VEEBS. 77 

The imperfect tense is that which expresses what 
took place, or was occurring, in time fully past : as, " I saw 
him yesterday ; he was walking out." 

The perfect tense is that which expresses what has 
taken place, within some period of time not yet fully past ; 
as, "I have seen him to-day." 

The pluperfect tense is that which expresses what 
had taken place, at some past time mentioned ; as, "I had 
seen him, when I met you." 

The first-future tense is that which expresses what 
will take place hereafter ; as, " 1 shall see him again." 

The second -future tense is that which expresses 
what will have taken place, at some future time mentioned ; 
as, "I shall have seen him by to-morrow noon." 

Obs. 1. — There are two circumstances on which the distinction of tense 
is based : — 

1. Whether the time is present, past, or future. 

2. Whether the action is perfect or imperfect — complete or incom- 
plete — in regard to each distinction of time. Hence, there must be six 
tenses to express this twofold distinction : — 

Present tense. 
Imperfect tense. 
First-future tense. 
Perfect tense. 
Pluperfect tense. 
Second-future tense. 

Obs. 2. — The tenses do not all express time with equal precision. 
Those of the indicative mood, are the most definite. The time expressed 
by the same tenses (or what are called by the same names) in the other 
moods, is frequently relative, and sometimes indefinite. 

Obs. 3. — The present tense, in the indicative mood, expresses general 
truths, and customary actions; as, "Vice produces misery." — "She 
often visits us." We also use it in speaking of persons who are dead, 
but whose works remain ; as, " Seneca reasons well." 

Obs. 4. — The present tense in the subjunctive mood, and in the other 
moods, when preceded by as soon as, after, before, till, or when, is gen- 



1. 

2. 
3. 


Present \ 
Past 
Future * ) 


Imperfect 
or Indefinite 


4. 


Present ) 




5. 


Past | 


Perfect 


6. 


Future ) 





78 ETYMOLOGY. 

e rally used with reference to future time ; as, "If he ask a fish, will h<« 
give him a serpent?" — Matt, vi., 10. "When he arrives, I will send 
for you. " 

Obs. 5. — In animated narrative, the present tense is sometimes sub- 
stituted (by the figure enallage) for the imperfect; as, "Ulysses wakes, 
not knowing where he was." — Pope. 

Obs. 6. — The present infinitive can scarcely he said to express any 
particular time. It is usually dependent on another verb, and, there- 
fore, relative in time. It may be connected with any tense of any 
mood ; as, "I intend to do it, I intended to do it, I have intended to do 
it," etc. It is often used to express futurity ; as, "The time to come." 
— "The world to come.'''' — "Rapture yet to be." 

Inflections. — Persons and Numbers. 

As there are two numbers and three persons, there must be 
six distinctions, to express which a verb may be inflected, or 
changed, to agree with its subject ; but, as already stated, the 
inflections used in English are very few. Thus, the verb love, 
in the indicative mood, present tense, has only the following 
forms : 

Singular. Plural. 
1st per. go, go, 

2d per. goest, go, 

3d per. goes ; go. 

It will be seen that there are only two 'inflections, both 
being in the singular : the addition of st (or est) for the second 
person, and s (or es) for the third ; the first person, singular, 
and all the persons in the plural being alike. 

Obs. 1. — The third person singular was anciently formed in th or eth, 
but this inflection is now only used in the formal or solemn style. Both, 
hath, and saith are contractions of verbs thus formed. 

Obs. 2. — The customary mode of familiar as well as complimentary 
address is altogether plural, both the verb and the pronoun being used 
in that form. The singular is, however, invariably employed in refer 
ence to the Supreme Being, in poetry, and in the solemn style, generally- 
Although the pronoun you is used with a singular meaning, the verb 
must be plural, because the forms must agree- 



lar. Plural. 

1st per. love, love, 

2d per. \o\est, love, 

3d per. loves ; love. 



VERBS. 79 

Obs. 3. — In the solemn style (except in poetry, which usually con- 
tracts these forms), the second person singular of the present indicative, 
and that of the irregular preterits, commonly end in est, pronounced as 
a separate syllahle. But as the termination ed, in solemn discourse, 
constitutes a syllable, the regular preterits form the second person sin- 
gular, by adding st, without further increase of syllables ; as, loved, 
lovedst — not lovedext. Dost and hast, and the irregular preterits wast, 
didst, and Jiadst, are permanently contracted. The auxiliaries shall and 
will, change the final I to t. To the auxiliaries may, can, might, could, 
would, and should, the termination est was formerly added ; but they 
are now generally written with st only, and pronounced as monosyllables, 
even in solemn discourse. 

Obs. 4. — When the second person singular is employed in familiar 
discourse, it is usually formed in a manner strictly analogous to that 
which is now adopted in the third person singular. When the verb 
ends in a sound which will unite with that of st or s, the second person 
singular is formed by adding st only, and the third by adding s only ; 
and the number of syllables is not increased : as, I read, thou readst, he 
reads ; I knmc, thou knoiost, he knows ; I take, thou takest, he takes. 
For when the verb ends in mute e, no termination renders this e vocal 
in the familiar style, if a synseresis can take place. 

Obs. 5. — But when the verb ends in a sound which will not unite 
with that of st or s, st and s are added to final e, and est and es to other 
terminations ; and the verb acquires an additional syllable : as, I trace, 
thou tracest, he traces ; I pass, thou passest, he passes ; I fix, thou 
fixest, he fixes. But verbs ending in o or y preceded by a consonant, do 
not exactly follow this rule: in these, y is changed into i ; and to both 
o and i, est and es are added without increase of syllables : as, I go, thou 
goest, he goes; I undo, thou undoest, he undoes; I fly, thou fliest, he 
flies; I pity, thou pitiest, he pities. 

Obs. 6. — The auxiliaries do*, dost, does [pronounced doo, dust, duz] — 
am, art, is — have, hast, has, — being also in frequent use as principal 
verbs of the present tense, retain their peculiar form when joined to other 
verbs. The other auxiliaries are not varied, except in the solemn style. 

Obs. 7. — The only regular terminations that are added to verbs, are 
ing, d or ed, st or est, s or es, th or eth. Ing, and th or eth, always add a 
syllable to the verb ; except in doth, hath, saith. The rest, whenever 
their sound will unite with that of the final syllable of the verb, are 
added without increasing the number of syllables ; otherwise, they are 
■separately pronounced. In solemn discourse, however, ed and est are, 
by most speakers, uttered distinctly in all cases, except sometimes, 
when a vowel precedes. 



80 ETYMOLOGY. 

Conjugation of Verbs. 
The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement 
of its moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and participles. 

Obs. — The moods and tenses are formed partly by inflections, or 
changes made in the verb itself, and partly by the combination of the 
verb or its participle, with a few short verbs called auxiliaries, or help- 
ing verbs. 

There are four principal parts in the conjugation of 
every simple and complete verb ; namely, the present, 
the preterit, the imperfect participle, and the 
perfect participle. A verb which wants any of 
these parts is called defective : such are most of the 
auxiliaries. 

Obs. — The present is radically the same in all the moods, and is the 
part from which all the rest are formed. The present infinitive is the 
root, or simplest form, of the verb. The preterit and the perfect parti- 
ciple are regularly formed by adding d or ed, and the imperfect parti- 
ciple by adding ing, to the present. 

An auxiliary is a short verb prefixed to one of the 
principal parts of another verb, to express some particular 
mode and time of the being, action, or passion. The aux- 
iliaries are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, and must, 
with their variations. 

Obs. 1. — Do, be, and have, being also principal verbs, are complete: 
but the pa ticiples of do and have are not used as auxiliaries ; unless 
having, which forms the compound participle, may be considered as 
such. The other auxiliaries have no participles. 

Obs. 2.— English verbs are principally conjugated by means of 
auxiliaries, the only tenses which can be formed by the simple verb, 
being the present and the imperfect ; as, I love, I loved. And even here 
an auxiliary is usually preferred in questions and negations ; as, Do you 
love f You do not love. All the other tenses, even in their simplest 
form, are compounds. 

Obs. 3. — The form of conjugating the active verb is often called the 
Active Voice ; and that of the passive verb, the Passive Voice. These 
terms are borrowed from the Latin and Greek grammars, and are of 
little or no use in English. 



VERBS. 81 

Obs. 4. — English verbs having few inflections, it is convenient to insert 
in the conjugations the preposition to, to mark the infinitive ; pronouns, 
to distinguish the persons and numbers ; the conjunction if, to denote 
the subjunctive ; and the adverb not, to show the form of negation. 
With these additions, a verb may be conjugated in four ways : 

1. Affirmatively ; as, I write, I do write, or I am writing. 

2. Negatively ; as, I write not, I do not write, or, I am not writing. 

3. Interrogatively ; as, Write I ? Do I write? or, Am I writing? 

4. Interrogatively and negatively; as, Write I not ? I>0 I not write? 
or, J.W I not writing ? 

Simple Form, Active or Neuter. 

The simplest form of an English conjugation, is that which 
makes the present and imperfect tenses without auxiliaries ; 
but, even in these, auxiliaries are required for the potential 
mood, and are often preferred for the indicative. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VEEB LOVE. 

Principal Parts. 

Present. Preterit. Imper. Participle. Perfect Participle. 

Love. Loved. Loving. Loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. To love. 
Perfect Tense. To have loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1st per. I love, 1st per. We love, 

2d per. Thou lovest, 2d per. You love, 

3d per. He loves ; Sd per. They love. 

Tnis tense may also be formed by prefixing tlie auxiliary do to the 
verb : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I do love, 1. We do love, 

2. Thou dost love, 2. You do love, 

3. He does love ; 3. They do love. 

4* 



82 ETYMOLOGY. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I loved, 1. We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 

3. He loved ; 3. They loved. 

This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary did to the 
present : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I did love, 1. We did love, 

2. Thou didst love, 2. You did love, 

3. He did love ; 3. They did love. 

Obs. — In a familiar question or negation, the auxiliary form is prefer- 
able to the simple. But in the solemn or the poetic style, the simple 
form is more dignified and graceful; as, " Understandest thou what thou 
readest ? " — "Of whom speaketh the prophet this?" — Acts. — "Say, 
heard ye naught of lowland war ? " — Scott. 

Perfect Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliary have to* the perfect participle : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 

3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliary had to the perfect participle : — 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved ; 3. They had loved. 

First-future Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliary shall or will to the present : — 

1. Simply to express a future action or event : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 

2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love, 

3. He will love ; 3. They will love. 



VERBS. 83 

2. To express a promise, volition, command, or threat : — 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I will love, 1. We will love, 

2. Thou shalt love, 2. You shall love, 

3. He shall love ; 3. They shall love. 

Obs. — In interrogative sentences, the meaning of these auxiliaries is 
reversed. When preceded by a conjunction implying condition or un- 
certainty, their import is somewhat varied. 

Second-future Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliaries shall have or will have to the perfect 
participle : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 

2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 

3. He will have loved ; 3. They will have loved. 

Obs. —The auxiliary shall may also be used in the second and third 
persons of this tense, when preceded by a conjunction expressing con- 
dition or contingency ; as, "If he shall have finished his work when I 
return. " And perhaps will may here be used in the first person to ex- 
press a promise or a determination, though such usage, I think, very 
seldom occurs. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliary may, can, or must, to the radical 
verb : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may love, 1. We may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 

3. He may love ; 3. They may love. 

Imperfect Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliary might, could, would, or should, to the 
radical verb : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might love, 1. We might love, 

2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 

3. He might love ; 3. They might love. 



84 ETYMOLOGY. 

Perfect Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, may have, can have, or must have, 
to the perfect participle : — 

Singular. Plural 

1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 

2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 

3. He may have loved; 3. They may have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, might have, could have, would have, 
or should have, to the perfect participle : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have loved, 1. "We might have loved, 

2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 

3. He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

This tense is generally used to express some condition on which a 
future action or event is affirmed. It is therefore considered by some 
grammarians, as an elliptical form of the future. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou love, 2. If you love, 

3. If he love ; 3. If they love. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Obs. — This tense is indefinite, as it may refer to time past, present, 
or future. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 

2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 

3. If he loved; 3. If they loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. 2. Love [thou,] or Do thou love. 
Plural. 2. Love [ye or you,] or Do you love. 



VERBS, . 85 

Obs. — This tense is commonly used only in the second person, but 
there seem to be occasional exceptions to this ; as, " Blessed be he that 
blesseth thee." — " Thy kingdom come.' 1 '' — " My soul, turn from them — 
turn we to survey." — Goldsmith. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect, 

Loving. Loved. Having loved. 

SYNOPSIS OF THE FIRST EXAMPLE. 
First Person Singular. 

Indicative. I love, I loved, I have loved, I had loved, I shall love, 
I shall have loved. Potential. I may love, I might love, I may have 
loved, I might have loved. Subjunctive. If I love, If I loved. 

Second Person Singular. 

Indicative. Thou lovest, Thou lovedst, Thou hast loved, Thou 
hadst loved, Thou wilt love, Thou wilt have loved. Potential. Thou 
mayst love, Thou mightst love, Thou mayst have loved. Thou mightst 
have loved. Subjunctive. If thou love, If thou loved. Imperative. 
Love [thou,] or Do thou love. 

Third Person Singular. 

Indicative. He loves, He loved, He has loved, He had loved, He 
will love, He will have loved. Potential. He may love, He might 
love, He may have loved, He might have loved. Subjunctive. If he 
love, If he loved. 

First Person Plural. 

Indicative. We love, We loved, We have loved, We had loved, 
We shall love, We shall have loved. Potential. We may love, We 
might love, We may have loved, We might have loved. Subjunctive. 
If we love, If we loved. 

Second Person Plural. 

Indicative. You love, You loved, You have loved, You had loved, 
You will love, You will have loved. Potential. You may love, You 
might love, You may have loved, You might have loved. Subjunctive. 
If you love, If you loved. Imperative. Love [ye or you,] or Do you love. 

Third Person Plural. 

Indicative. — They love, They loved, They have loved, They had 
loved, They will love, They will have loved. Potential. They may 
love, They might love, They may have loved, They might have loved. 
Subjunctive. If they love, If they loved. 



86 ■ ETYMOLOGY. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VEEB SEE. 
Principal Parts. 

Present. Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perfect Participle, 

See. Saw. Seeing. Seen. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. To see. 
Perfect Tense. To have seen. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I see, 1. We see, 

2. Thou seest, 2. You see, 

3. He sees ; 3. They see. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I saw, 1. We saw, 

2. Thou sawest, 2. You saw, 

3. He saw ; 3. They saw. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have seen, 1. We have seen, 

2. Thou hast seen, 2. You have seen, 

3. He has seen ; 3. They have seen. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had seen, 1. We had seen, 

2. Thou hadst seen, 2. You had seen, 

3. He had seen ; 3. They had seen. 



VERBS. 87 

First-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall see, 1. We shall see, 

2. Thou wilt see, 2. You will see, 

3. He will see ; 3. They will see. 

Second-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have seen, 1. "We shall have seen, 

2. Thou wilt have seen, 2. You will have seen, 

3. He will have seen ; 3. They will have seen. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may see, 1. We may see, 

2. Thou mayst see, 2. You may see, 

3. He may see ; 3. They may see. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might see, 1, We might see, 

2. Thou mightst see, 2. You might see, 

3. He might see ; 3. They might see. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have seen, 1. We may have seen, 

2. Thou mayst have seen, 2. You may have seen, 

3. He may have seen ; 3. They may have seen. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have seen, 1. We might have seen, 

2. Thou mightst have seen, 2. You might have seen, 

3. He might have seen ; 3. They might have seen. 



88 ETYMOLOGY. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I see, 1. If we see, 

2. If thou see, 2. If you see, 

3. If he see ; 3. If they see. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I saw, 1. If we saw, 

2. If thou saw, 2. If you saw, 

3. If he saw ; 3. If they saw. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. 2. See [thou,] or Do thou see. 

Plural. 2. See [ye or you,] or Do you see. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect 

Seeing. Seen. Having seen. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE. 

Principal Parts. 

Present. Preterit. Imperfect Participle. Perfect Participle. 

Be. Was. Being. Been. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. To be. 
Perfect Tense. To have been. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am, 1. We are, 

2. Thou art, 2. You are, 

3. He is ; 3. They are. 



VERBS. I 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was, 1. We were, 

2. Thou wast,* 2. You were, 

3. He was ; 3. They were. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1. I have been, 1. We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 

3. He has been ; 3. They have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been ; 3. They had been. 

First-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall be, 1. We shaU be, 

2. Thou wilt be, 2. You will be, 

3. He will be ; 3. They will be. 

Second -future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 

2. Thou wilt have been, • 2. You will have been, 

3. He will have been ; 3. They will have been. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be, 1. We may be, 

2. Thou mayst be, 2. You may be, 

3. He may be ; 3. They may be. 

* Obs.-— In poetry, tcert is sometimes used indicatively for wast ; as, 
" Vainly wert thou wed.' 1 — Byron. 
" Whate'er thou art or wert." — Id. 



90 ETYMOLOGY. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be, 1. We might be, 

2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 

3. He might be ; 3. They might be. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been ; 3. They may have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 

3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. EI be, 1. If we be, 

2. If thou be, 2. If you be, 

3. If he be; 3. If they be. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were, 1. If we were, 

2. If thou wert, or were, 2. If you were, 

3. If he were ; 3. If they were. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. 2. Be [thou,] or Do thou be. 
Plural. 2. Be [ye or you,] or Do you be. 

PARTICIPLES. 
1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. 

Being. Been. Having been. 



91 



Compound Form, Active or Neuter. 

Active and neuter verbs may also be conjugated, by adding 
the Imperfect Participle to the auxiliary verb be, through all 
its changes ; as, I am writing — He is sitting. This form of 
the verb is used to denote a continuance of the action or the 
state of being. 

Obs. — In this form of the verb, the active participle is sometimes 
used with a passive meaning: as, "The books are now setting y" instead 
of being sold. — "The designs of Providence are carrying on." — Bp. 
Butler. This idiom is approved by good critics and writers. 



COMPOUND FORM OF THE VERB READ 

Principal Parts of the Simple Verb, 

Present. Preterit. Imperf. Participle. Perf. Participle. 

Read. Read. Reading. Read. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. To be reading. 
Perfect Tense. To have been reading. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am reading, 1. We are reading, 

2. Thou art reading, 2. You are reading, 

3. He is reading ; 3. They are reading. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was reading, 1. We were reading, 

2. Thou wast reading, 2. You were reading, 

3. He was reading; 3. They were reading. 



92 ETYMOLOGY. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been reading, 1. We have been reading, 

2. Thou hast been reading, 2. You have been reading, 

3. He has been reading ; 3. They have been reading. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been reading, 1. We had been reading, 

2. Thou hadst been reading, 2. You had been reading, 

3. He had been reading ; 3. They had been reading. 

First-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall be reading, 1. We shall be reading, 

2. Thou wilt be reading, 2. You will be reading, 

3. He will be reading ; 3. They will be reading. 

Second-future Tense. 

Singular. 1. I shall have been reading, 

2. Thou wilt have been reading, 

3. He will have been reading ; 

Plural. 1. We shall have been reading, 

2. You will have been reading, 

3. They will have been reading. 

♦ POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be reading, 1. We may be reading, 

2. Thou mayst be reading, 2. You may be reading, 

3. He may be reading ; 3. They may be reading. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be reading, 1. We might be reading, 

2. Thou mightst be reading, 2. You might be reading, 

3. He might be reading ; 3. They might be reading. 



VEEBS. 93 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. 1. I may have been reading, 

2. Thou mayst have been reading, 

3. He may have been reading ; 

Plural, 1. "We may have been reading, 

2. You may have been reading, 

3. They may have been reading. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. 1. I might have been reading, 

2. Thou mightst have been reading, 

3. He might have been reading ; 

Plural. 1. We might have been reading, 

2. You might have been reading, 

3. They might have been reading. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be reading, 1. If we be reading, 

2. If thou be reading, 2. If you be reading, 

3. If he be reading ; 3. If they be reading. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were reading, 1. If we were reading, 

2. If thou wert reading, 2. If you were reading, 

3. If he were reading ; 3. If they were reading. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. 2. Be [thou] reading, or Do thou be reading. 
Plural. 2. Be [ye or you] reading, or Do you be reading. 

PARTICIPLES 

1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. 

Being reading. Having been reading. 



94 ETYMOLOGY. 

Form of Passive Verbs. 

Passive verbs, in EDglish, are always of a compound form, 
being made from active-transitive verbs, by adding the per- 
feet participle to the auxiliary verb be through all its changes : 
thus from the active-transitive verb love is formed the pas- 
sive verb be loved. 

Obs. — The passive form seems to be assumed by some intransitive 
verbs : as, I am come ; Re is risen ; They are fallen. In this case the 
participle relates to the subject, and does not form a part of the predi- 
cate verb. The usual active form is preferable : as, / have come ; — He 
has risen ; — They have arrived. 

CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VEEB 

BE LOVED. 

Principal Parts of the Active Verb 

Present. Preterit. Imperf Participle. Perfect Participle 

Love. Loved. Loving. Loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. To be loved. 
Perfect Tense. To have been loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved, 1. We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved, 

3. He is loved ; 3. They are loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved, 1. We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 

3. He was loved ; 3. They were loved. 



VERBS. 95 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have been loved, 

3. He has been loved ; 3. They have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved ; 3. They had been loved. 

First-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be loved, 

2. Thou wilt be loved, 2. You will be loved, 

3. He will beloved; 3. They will beloved. 

Second-future Tense. 

Singular. 1. I shall have been loved, 

2. Thou wilt have been loved, 

3. He will have been loved ; 

Plural. 1. We shall have been loved, 

2. You will have been loved, 

3. They will have been loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved, 

2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved, 

3. He may beloved; 3. They may be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be loved, 1. We might be loved, 

2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 

3. He might be loved ; 3. They might be loved. 



96 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Perfect Tense. 

Singular. 1. I may have been loved, 

2. Thou niayst have been loved, 

3. He may have been loved ; 

Plural. 1. We may have been loved, 

2. You may have been loved, 

3. They may have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. 1. I might have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst have been loved, 

3. He might have been loved ; 

Plural. 1. We might have been loved, 

2. You might have been loved, 

3. They might have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 



Singular. 




Plural. 


1. If I beloved, 


1. 


If we be loved, 


2. If thou be loved, 


2. 


If you be loved, 


3. If he be loved ; 


3. 


If they be loved. 



Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If I were loved, 1. If we were loved, 

2. If thou wert loved, 2. If you were loved, 

3. If he were loved ; 3. If they were loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. 2. Be [thou] loved, or Do thou be loved. 

Plural. 2. Be [ye or you] loved, or Do you be loved. 



1. The Imperfect. 
Being loved. 



PARTICIPLES. 
2. The Perfect. 
Loved. 



3. The Preperfect. 
Having been loved 



VERBS. 97 

Form of Negation. 

A verb is conjugated negatively by placing the adverb not 
after it, or after the first auxiliary ; but the infinitive and par- 
ticiples take the negative first : — 

Infinitive. Not to love, Not to have loved. Indicative. I love not, 
or I do not love, I loved not, or I did not love, I have not loved, I had 
not loved, I shall not love, I shall not have loved. Potential. I may, 
can, or must not love ; I might, could, would, or should not love. I 
may, can, or must not have loved : I might, could, would, or should not 
have loved. Subjunctive. If I love not, If I loved not. Participles. 
Not loving, Not loved, Not having loved. 

Form of Question. 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively, in the indicative and 
potential moods, by jriacing the nominative after it, or after 
the first auxiliary ; as, 

Indicative. Do I love ? Did I love ? Have I loved ? Had I loved ? 
Shall I love ? Shall I have loved ? Potential. May, can, or must I 
love ? Might, could, would, or should I love ? May, can, or must I have 
loved ? Might, could, would, or should I have loved ? 

Form of Question with Negation. 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively, in the 
indicative and potential moods, by placing the nominative and 
the adverb not after the verb, or after the first auxiliary ; as, 

Indicative. Do I not love ? Did I not love ? Have I not loved ? Had 
I not loved ? Shall I not love ? Shall I not have loved ? Potential. 
May, can, or must I not love ? Might, could, would, or should I not 
love ? May, can, or must I not have loved ? Might, could, would, or 
should I not have loved ? 

Irregular Verbs. 

An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit 
and perfect participle by assuming d or ed ; as, see, saw, seeing, 
seen. 

Ods. 1.— When the verb ends in a sharp consonant, t is sometimes im- 
properly substituted for ed, making the preterit and the perfect parti- 
ciple irregular in spelling, when they are not so in sound ; as, distrest 
for distressed, tost for tossed, mixt for mixed, crackt for crashed. 
5 



98 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Obs. 2. — When the verb ends with a smooth consonant, the substitu- 
tion of t for ed produces an irregularity in sound, as well as in writing. 
In some such irregularities, the poets are indulged for the sake of rhyme 
but the best speakers and writers of prose prefer the regular form wher- 
ever good use has sanctioned it: thus, learned is better than learnt; 
burned, than burnt ; penned, than pent ; absorbed, than absorpt; spelled, 
than spelt ; smelled, than smelt. 

Obs. 3. — The following alphabetical list exhibits the simple irregular 
verbs, as they are now generally used. In this list, and also in that of the 
redundant verbs, those preterits and participles which are supposed to 
be preferable, and best supported by authorities, are placed first. 



List of the Irregular Verbs. 



Present. 


Preterit. 


Imp. Participle. 


Perfect Participle. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abiding, 


abode. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arising, 


arisen. 


Be, 


was, 


being, 


been. 


Bear, 


bore or bare, 


bearing, 


borne or born.* 


Beat, 


beat, 


beating, 


beat or beaten. 


Begin, 


began, 


beginning, 


begun. 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beholding, 


beheld. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


beseeching, 


besought. 


Beset, 


beset, 


besetting, 


beset. 


Bid, 


bid or bade, 


bidding, 


bid or bidden. 


Bide, 


bode, 


biding, 


bode. 


Bind, 


bound, 


binding, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


biting, 


bitten or bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bleeding, 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blowing, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


breaking, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


breeding, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


bringing, 


brought. 


Burst, 


burst, 


bursting, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


buying, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


casting, 


cast. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chiding, 


chidden or chid 


Choose, 


chose, 


choosing, 


chosen. 


Cleave, f 


cleft or clove, 


cleaving, 


cleft or cloven. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clinging, 


clung. 



* Borne signifies carried ; bom signifies brought forth. 

t Cleave, to split, is irregular as above ; cleave, to stick, is regular, but clave was for- 
merly used in the preteii: for ceavecl. 



VERBS. 



99 





Irregular 


Verbs. — Continued. 


Present. 


Preterit. 


Imp. Participle. 


Perfect Participle. 


Come, 


came, 


coming, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


costing, 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept, 


creeping, 


crept. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cutting, 


cut. 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealing, 


dealt. 


Do, 


did, 


doing, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawing, 


drawn. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drinking, 


drunk or drank. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driving, 


driven. 


Eat, 


eat or ate, 


eating, 


eaten. 


Fall, 


fell, 


falling, 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 


feeding, 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


feeling, 


felt. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fighting, 


fought. 


Find, 


found, 


finding, 


found. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fleeing, 


fled. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flinging, 


flung. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flying, 


flown. 


Forbear, 


forbore, 


forbearing, 


forborne. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaking, 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


freezing, 


frozen. 


Get, 


got, 


getting, 


got or gotten. 


Give, 


gave, 


giving, 


given. 


Go, 


went, 


going, 


gone. 


Grind, 


ground, 


grinding, 


ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 


growing, 


grown. 


Have, 


had, 


having, 


had. 


Hear, 


heard, 


hearing, 


heard. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hiding, 


hidden or hid. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hitting, 


hit. 


Hold, 


held, 


holding, 


held or holden. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurting, 


hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, 


keeping, 


kept. 


Know, 


knew, 


knowing, 


known. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laying, 


laid. 


Lead, 


led, 


leading, 


led. 


Leave, 


left, 


leaving, 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lending, 


lent. 


Let, 


let, 


letting, 


let. 


Lie (to rest), 


lay, 


lying, 


lain. 


Lose, 


lost, 


losing, 


lost. 



100 


ETYMOLOGY. 






Irregular 


Verbs.— Continued. 


Present. 


Preterit. 


Imp. Participle. 


Pe7'fect Participle. 


Make, 


made, 


making, 


made. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meaning, 


meant. 


Meet, 


met, 


meeting, 


met. 


Outdo, 


outdid, 


outdoing, 


outdone. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paying, 


paid. 


Put, 


put, 


putting, 


put. 


Read, 


r6ad, 


reading, 


read. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rending, 


rent. 


Rid, 


rid, 


ridding, 


rid. 


Ride, 


rode, 


riding, 


ridden. 


Ring, 


rang or rung, 


ringing, 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


rising, 


risen. 


Run, 


ran or run, 


running, 


run. 


Say, 


said, 


saying, 


said. 


See, 


saw, 


seeing, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought, 


seeking, 


sought. 


Sell, 


sold, 


selling, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sending, 


sent. 


Set, 


set, 


setting, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaking, 


shaken. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shedding, 


shed. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shoeing, 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shooting, 


shot. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shutting, 


shut. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shredding, 


shred. 4*. 


Shrink, 


shrunk or shrank, shrinking, 


shrunk or shrunken. 


Sing, 


sung or sang, 


singing, 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk or sank, 


sinking, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sitting, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slaying, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


sleeping, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, 


sliding, 


slid or slidden. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slinging, 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slinking, 


slunk. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smiting, 


smitten or smit. 


Speak, 


spoke, 


speaking, 


spoken. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spending, 


spent. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spinning, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, 


spitting, 


spit or spitten. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spreading, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprang &r sprang, springing, 


sprung. 







VERBS. 


101 




Irregular 


Verbs. — Continued. 


Present. 


Preterit, 


Imp. Participle. 


Perfect Participle. 


Stand, 


stood, 


standing, 


stood. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stealing, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


sticking, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stinging, 


stung. 


Stride, 


strode, 


striding, 


stridden or strid. 


Strike, 


struck, 


striking, 


struck or stricken 


Strive, 


strove, 


striving, 


striven. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


sweeping, 


swept. 


Swear, 


swore, 


swearing, 


sworn. 


Swim, 


swam, 


swimming, 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swinging, 


swung. 


Take, 


took, 


taking, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


teaching, 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 


tearing, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


telling, 


told. 


Think, 


though* 


thinking, 


thought. 


Throw, 


threw, 


throwing, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrusting, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


treading, 


trodden or trod. 


Wear, 


wore, 


wearing, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


weaving, 


woven. 


Weep, 


wept, 


weeping, 


wept. 


Win, 


won, 


winning, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, 


winding, 


wound. 


Wflag, 


wrung, 


wringing, 


wrung. 


Write, 


wrote, 


writing, 


written. 



List of the Redundant Verbs. 



Present. 


Preterit. 


Impeif. Participle, 


Awake, 


awoke or awaked, 


awaking, 


Belay, 


belaid or belayed, 


belaying, 


Bend, 


bent or bended, 


bending, 


Bereave, 


bereft or bereaved. 


bereaving, 


Bet, 


betted or bet, 


befcting, 


Blend, 


blended or blent, 


blending, 


Bless, 


blessed or blest, 


blessing, 


Build, 


built or build ed, 


building, 


Burn, 


burned or burnt, 


burning, 


Catch, 


caught or catched, 


catching, 



Perfect Participle. 
awoke or awaked, 
belaid or belayed, 
bent o?' bended, 
bereft or bereaved, 
betted or bet. 
blended or blent, 
blessed or blest. 
built or builded. 
burned or burnt, 
caught or catched. 



102 


ETYMOLOGY. 






Redundant 


Verbs. — Continued. 


Present. 


Preterit. Imperf. Participle. 


Perfect Participle. 


Clothe, 


clothed or clad, 


clothing, 


clothed or clad. 


Crow, 


crew or crowed, 


crowing, 


crowed. 


Curse, 


cursed or curst, 


cursing, 


cursed or curst. 


Dare, 


dared or durst, 


daring, 


dared. 


Dig, 


dug or digged, 


digging, 


dug or digged. 


Dream, 


dreamed or dreamt, dreaming, 


dreamed or dreamt 


Dress, 


dressed or drest, 


dressing, 


dressed or drest. 


Dwell, 


dwelt or dwelled, 


dwelling. 


dwelt or dwelled. 


Geld, 


gelded or gelt, 


gelding. 


gelded or gelt. 


Gild, 


gilded or gilt, 


gilding, 


gilded or gilt. 


Gird, 


girded or girt, 


girding, 


girded or girt. 


Grave, 


graved, 


graving, 


graven or graved. 


Hang, 


hanged or hung, 


hanging, 


hanged or hung. 


Heave, 


heaved or hove, 


heaving, 


heaved or hoven. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewing. 


hewed or hewn. 


Kneel, 


knelt or kneeled, 


kneeling, 


knelt or kneeled. 


Knit, 


knit or knitted, 


knitting, 


knit or knitted. 


Lade, 


laded, 


lading, 


laded or laden. 


Lean, 


leaned or leant, 


leaning, 


leaned or leant. 


Leap, 


leaped or leapt, 


leaping, 


leaped or leapt. 


Learn, 


learned or learnt, 


learning, 


learned or learnt. 


Light, 


lighted or lit, 


lighting, 


lighted or lit. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mowing, 


mowed or mown. 


Pen (to coop), 


penned or pent, 


penning, 


penned or pent. 


Quit, 


quitted or quit, 


quitting, 


quitted or quit. 


Rap, 


rapped, 


rapping, 


rapped or rapt. 


Reave, 


reft or reaved . 


reaving, 


reft or reaved. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riving, 


riven or rived. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawing, 


sawed or sawn. 


Seethe, 


seethed or sod, 


seething, 


seethed or sodden. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaping, 


shaped or shapen. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaving, 


shaved or shaven. 


Shear, 


sheared or shore, 


shearing, 


sheared or shorn. 


Shine, 


shone or shined. 


shining, 


shone or shined. 


Show, 


showed, 


showing, 


shown or showed. 


Slit, 


slit or slitted, 


slitting, 


slit or slitted. 


Smell, 


smelled or smelt, 


smelling, 


smelled or smelt. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sowing, 


sown or sowed. 


Speed, 


sped or speeded, 


speeding, 


sped or speeded. 


Spell, 


spelled or spelt, 


spelling, 


spelled or spelt. 


Spill, 


spilled or spilt, 


spilling, 


spilled or spilt. 



VERBS. 



103 





Redundant Verbs. — Continued. 


Present. 


Preterit. Imp 


erf. Participle 


. Perfect Participle. 


Split, 


split or splitted, 


splitting, 


split or splitted. 


Spoil, 


spoiled or spoilt, 


spoiling, 


spoiled or spoilt. 


Stave, 


staved or stove, 


staving, 


staved or stove. 


Stay, 


staid or stayed, 


staying, 


staid or stayed. 


String, 


strung, 


stringing, 


strung or stringed. 


Strow, 


strowed, 


strowing, 


strowed or strown. 


Sweat, 


sweat or sweated, 


sweating, 


sweat or sweated. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swelling, 


swelled or swollen. 


Thrive, 


throve or thrived, 


thriving, 


thriven or thrived. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxing, 


waxed or waxen. 


Wet, 


wet or wetted, 


wetting, 


wet or wetted. 


Wont, 


wont, 


wonting, 


wont or wonted. 


Work, 


worked or wrought, 


working, 


worked or wrought. 



Defective Verbs. 

When any of the principal parts of a verb are wanting, the 
tenses usually derived from those parts are, of course, also 
wanting. All the auxiliaries, except do, be, and have, are 
defective ; but, as auxiliaries, they become parts of other 
verbs, and do not need the parts which are technically said to 
be "wanting" 

Obs. 1. — The following list contains all our defective verbs, except 
methinks, with its preterit methought, which is not only defective, but 
impersonal and irregular. It is equivalent to it thinks me. 



List of the Defective Verbs. 



Present. 

Beware, 

Can, 

May, 

Must, 

Ought, 



Preterit. 



could, 
might, 
must, 
ought. 



Present. 

Shall, 

Will, 

Quoth, 

Wis, 

Wit, 



Preterit. 

should. 

would. 

quoth. 

wist. 

wot. 



Obs. 2. — Beicare is not used in the indicative present. Must is never 
varied in termination. Ought is invariable, except in the solemn style, 
where we find ought est. Will is sometimes used as a principal verb, and 



104 ETYMOLOGY. 

as such is regular and complete. Quoth is used only in ludicrous lan- 
guage, and is not varied. It seems to be properly the third person sin- 
gular of the present, for it ends in th ; and quod was formerly used as 
the preterit. 

Obs. 3. — Wis, preterit vmt } to know, to think, to suppose, to imagine, 
appears to be now nearly or quite obsolete ; but it seems proper to ex- 
plain it, because it is found in the Bible ; as, "I wist not, brethren, 
that he was the high priest." — Acts. Wit, to know, and wot, knew, are 
also obsolete except in the phrase to wit; which, being taken abstractly, 
is equivalent to the adverb namely, or to the phrase, that is to say. 

Obs. 4 — Some verbs, from the nature of the subject to which they 
refer, can be used only in the third person singular : as, It rains ; it 
snows; it freezes; it hails ; it lightens; it thunders. These have been 
called impersonal verbs. The neuter pronoun it, which is always used 
before them, does not seem to represent any noun, but, in connection 
with the verb, merely to express a state of things. 

Exercises, 

1. State the classes and modifications of the verbs in the following sen- 
tences: — 

The house might have been built in time. The ship was wrecked. 
Hs should have finished his task. The young lady has been well edu- 
cated. What has been done cannot be repaired. I will go out this 
afternoon, iinless it rain. The horse must be shod, or he will become 
lame. They could not have known what they were doing. The mer- 
chant is said to have failed. The boy fell into the water, and he would 
have been drowned, if he had been unable to swim. He must have 
been mad to have committed the rash act. 0, how happy we might 
have been. I will call upon him, if he desire it. I will go, and 
you shall not prevent me. I shall fail, for no one will aid me. I 
should like to accept the invitation. He Avould be willing to pay for 
the privilege. I would not do it, if I could. You shall do it, for I will 
compel you. You will not commit so base an act ! If it snow to-mor- 
row, I cannot go. You ought to have tried to oblige your friend. Be- 
ware, lest your anger overcome you. 

2. Write sentences, each containing an active verb, transit ire or intran- 
sitive, as directed in the following : — 

In the indicative mood, perfect tense; indicative pluperfect; sub- 
junctive present; subjunctive imperfect; potential present; potential 



VERBS. 105 

perfect ; infinitive present ; infinitive perfect ; indicative first future ; 
potential pluperfect ; imperative ; indicative second future ; potential 
imperfect ; indicative imperfect. 

3. Write sentences, each containing a passive verb with the same modifi- 
cations as in the above. 



X.— PARTICIPLES. 



A participle is a word derived from a verb, partici- 
pating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a 
noun ; and is generally f ormecT by adding ing, d, or ed to 
the verb. 

Obs. — Participles retain the essential meaning of their verbs ; and, 
like verbs, are either active-transitive, active-intransitive, passive, or 
neuter, in their signification. For this reason many have classed them 
with the verbs ; but their formal meaning is obviously different. They 
convey no affirmation, but usually relate to nouns or pronouns, like ad- 
jectives, except when they are joined with auxiliaries to form the com- 
pound tenses ; or when they have in part the nature of substantives, 
like the Latin gerunds. 

Classes. 

English, verbs have severally three participles : the im- 
perfect, the perfect, and the pre perfect. 

Obs. — Various names have been given to the participles ; as their 
order is undisputed, they may be conveniently called the First, the 
Second, and the Third. 

The imperfect participle is that which ends com- 
monly in ing, and implies a continuance of the being, 
action, or passion ; as, loving (active), being loved (passive). 

The perfect participle is that which ends com- 
monly in ed or en, and implies a completion of the being, 
action, or passion ; as, loved (passive). 

Obs. — The participle in ing represents the action or state as continuing 
and ever incomplete ; it is therefore rightly termed the imperfect par- 
5* 



106 ETYMOLOGY. 

ticiple : whereas the participle in ed always lias reference to the action 
as done and complete; and is by proper contradistinction called the 
perfect participle. 

Obs. — The perfect participle is essentially passive. Hence, in the case 
of intransitive and neuter verbs, this part of the verb cannot be used by 
itself. 

The preperfect participle is that which takes the 
sign hawing, and implies & previous completion of the being, 
action, or passion ; as, having loved (active), having been 
loved (passive). 

Obs. — If this participle is to be named with reference to its meaning, 
there is perhaps no better term for it than the epithet preperfect, — 
a word which explains itself, like prepaid or prerequisite. Of the many 
other names, the most correct one is pluperfect, — which is a term of 
very nearly the same meaning. Not because this compound is really of 
the pluperfect tense, but because it always denotes being, action, or pas- 
sion, that is, or was, or will be, completed before the doing or being of 
something else ; and, of course, when the latter thing is represented as 
past, the participle must correspond to the pluperfect tense of its verb ; 
as, ' ' Having explained her views, it was necessary she should expatiate 
on the vanity and futility of the enjoyments promised by Pleasure." 
Here having explained is equivalent to when she had explained. 

The imperfect participle of an active verb is always formed 
by adding ing to the radical verb ; as, look, looking. 

The imperfect participle of a passive verb is formed by pre- 
fixing being to the perfect participle ; as, being loved. 

The perfect participle is regularly formed by adding d or 
ed to the radical verb. 

Note.— For the perfect participles of irregular verbs, see lists, pp. 98-101. 

The preperfect participle of an active verb is formed by 
prefixing having to the perfect participle ; that of a passive 
verb, by prefixing having been ; as, having written, having been 
written. 

Thus, the English verb, in the active form, has, in fact, only 
two participles — the imperfect and the preperfect ; and in the 
passive, three — the imperfect, the perfect, and the preperfect 



PARTICIPLES. 107 

Participles may be separated into two other classes : those 
which participate the properties of a verb and an adjective, 
and those which participate the properties of a verb and a 
noun. The latter are sometimes called gerundives. 

The following are examples of each : — 

First Class.— Verb and Adjective. 

He came running very swiftly. 
She, dying, gave it me. 
The enemy having been defeated fled. 
She stood twinging her hands. 
Error wounded writhes in pain. 
The Justice read amused, amazed. 

Second Class.— Verb and Noun. (Gerundives.) 

She is fond of reading history. 

After having paid the money he retired. 

He was released on giving bail. 

In keeping His commandments there is great reward. 

Before leaving the city he paid his debts. 

Obs. 1. — Participles often become adjectives, and are construed before 
nonns to denote quality. The terms so converted form the class of par- 
ticipial adjectives. Words of a participial form may be regarded as adjee= 
tives. 1. When they reject the idea of time, and denote something 
customary or habitual, rather than a transient act or state ; as, A lying 
rogue, i.e., one addicted to lying. 2. When they admit adverbs of com- 
parison : as, A more learned man. 3. When they are compounded with 
something that does not belong to the verb ; as, xmfeeling, unfelt. There 
is no verb to unfeel ; therefore, no participle unfeeling or unfelt. Ad- 
jectives are generally placed before their nouns ; participles, after them. 

Obs. 2. — To distinguish the participle from the participial noun, the 
learner should observe the following fo ur things: 1. Nouns take articles 
and adjectives before them ; participles, as such, do not. 2. Nouns may 
govern the possessive case, but not the objective ; participles may govern 
the objective case, but not the possessive. 3. Nouns may be the subjects 
or objects of verbs; participles cannot. 4. Participial nouns express 
actions as things ; participles refer actions to their agents or recipients. 



108 ETYMOLOGY. 

Exercises, 

1. Write the participles of the verbs given below in the following form : 
Write 



Active. 
Imperfect. Writing. 

Perfect. 

Preperfect. Having written. 



Passive. 
Being written. 
Written. 
Having been written. 



Make, give, seek, speak, hurt, feed, wear, smite, swim, know, think, 
tell, work, clothe, catch, teach, tread, dream, kneel, shoe, ride, put, lie, 
lay, say, sit, set, spend, steal. 

2. Write sentences each containing a participle derived from one or 
more of these verbs. 

3. Write five sentences each containing a participle of the second class. 



XI.— ADVERBS. 

An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an 
adjective, or another adverb ; and generally expresses 
time, place, degree, or manner. 

Obs. 1. — Adverbs briefly express what would otherwise require sev- 
eral words; as, Now, for at this time — Here, for in this place — Very, 
for in a high degree — Diligently, for in an industrious manner. 

Obs. 2. — There are several combinations of short words which are 
used adverbially, and which, as idiomatic phrases, it is scarcely neces- 
sary or possible to separate in analysis or parsing ; as, Not at all, at 
length, in vain. 

Classes. 

Adverbs may be reduced to four general classes ; 
namely, adverbs of time, of place, of degree, and of 
manner. 

Adverbs of time are those which answer to the 
question, When f How long f How soon f or How often f 
including these which ask. 



ADVERBS. 109 

Obs. — Adverbs of time may be subdivided as follows : — 

1. Of time present ; as, Now, yet, to-day, presently, instantly, imme- 
diately. 

2. Of time past; as, Already, yesterday, lately, recently, anciently, 
heretofore, hitherto, since, ago, erewhile. 

3. Of time to come ; as, To-morrow, hereafter, henceforth, by-and-by, 
soon, erelong. 

4. Of time relative ; as, When, then, before, after, while or whilst, 
till, until, seasonably, betimes, early, late. 

5. Of time absolute ; as, Always, ever, never, aye, eternally, per- 
petually, continually. 

6. Of time repeated ; as, Often, oft, again, occasionally, frequently, 
sometimes, seldom, rarely, now-and-then, duily, weekly, monthly, yearly, 
once, twice, thrice, or three times, etc. 

7. Of the order of time ; as, First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, etc. 

Adverbs of place are those which answer to the 
question, Where ? Whither? Whence? or Whereabout? 
including these which ask. 

Obs. — Adverbs of place may be subdivided as follows : — 

1. Of place in which.; as, Where, here, there, yonder, above, below, 
about, around, somewhere, anywhere, elsewhere, everywhere, nowhere, 
wherever, within, without, whereabout, hereabout, thereabout. 

2. Of place to which ; as, Whither, hither, thither, in, up, down, back, 
forth, inwards, iqncards, downwards, backwards, forwards. 

3. Of place from which ; as, Whence, hence, thence, away, out. 

4. Of the order of place ; as, First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, etc. 

Adverbs of degree are those which answer to the 
question, How much ? How little ? or, to the idea of more 
or less. 

Obs. — Adverbs of degree may be subdivided as follows : — 

1. Of excess in abundance: as, Much, too, 'very, greatly, far, besides ; 
chiefly, principally, mainly, generally ; entirely, full, fully, completely, 
perfectly, whoVy, totally, altogether, all, quite, clear, stark; exceedingly, 
excessively, extravagantly, intolerably ; immeasurably, inconceivably, in- 
finitely. 

2. Of equality or sufficiency ; as, Enough, sufficiently, equally, so, as, 



110 ETYMOLOGY. 

3. Of deficiency or abatement ; as, Little, scarcely, hardly, merely, 
barely, only, but, partly, partially, nearly, almost. 

4. Of quantity in the abstract; as, How, (meaning, in what degree,) 
however, howsoever, everso, something, nothing, anything, and other 
nouns of quantity used adverbially. 

Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the 
question, How f or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, 
show how a subject is regarded. 

Obs. — Adverbs of manner may be subdivided as follows : — 

1. Of manner from quality ; as, Well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, 
quickly, and many others formed by adding ly to adjectives of quality. 

2. Of affirmation or assent ; as, Verily, truly, indeed, surely, certainly, 
doubtless, undoubtedly, certes, forsooth. 

3. Of negation ; as, No, nay, not, nowise. 

4. Of doubt ; as, Perhaps, haply, possibly, perchance, peradventure, 
may-be. 

5. Of mode or way ; as, Thus, so, how, somehow, however, howsoever, 
like, else, otherwise, across, together, apart, asunder, namely, particularly, 



6. Of cause ; as, Why, wherefore, therefore. 

Conjunctive Adverbs. 

Adverbs sometimes perform the office of conjunctions, 
and serve to connect the clauses of a sentence, as well as 
to express some circumstance of time, place, degree, or man- 
ner: adverbs that are so used, are called conjunctive 
adverbs. 

Obs. 1. — A conjunctive adverb introducing a dependent clause re- 
lates to the predicate verb in that clause, while the clause itself relates 
to the predicate verb of the principal clause. The words most frequently 
used in this way are the following : after, as, before, since, till, until, 
when, where, while or whilst. Because, answering to the question why, 
wherefore, for what reason (each of which is adverbial), may be also re- 
garded as a conjunctive adverb. There are other words, as also, besides, 
hence, however, therefore, etc., that imply a logical connection of sentences 
or prepositions; but they are not, grammatically, connective words. 



ADVERBS. Ill 

Obs. 2. — The word even, generally considered an adverb, as very fre- 
quently used, seems to perform the office of no part of speech, but to be 
employed merely to give emphasis to the particular word or phrase which 
it precedes ; as, " Even the great are not free from vice." — " I, even I 
only, am left." 

Obs. 3. — The words yes and yea, expressing a single affirmation, and 
no and nay, expressing a simple negation, are always independent. 
They generally answer a question, and are equivalent to a whole sen- 
tence. They cannot, therefore, be properly considered as adverbs, but 
rather as affirmative or negative particles. The word amen, meaning 
so let it be, is of a similar character and usage. 

Modifications. 

Adverbs have no modifications, except that a few are 
compared after the manner of adjectives : as, Soon, sooner, 
soonest ; — often, oftener, oftenest; — long, longer, longest. 

The following are irregularly compared : well, better, best ; 
badly or ill, ivorse, worst ; little, less, least ; much, more, most ; 
far, farther, farthest ; forth, further, furthest. 

Obs. — Most adverbs of quality will admit the comparative adverbs 
more and most, less and least, before them : as, wisely, mare icisely, most 
wisely ; culpably, less culpably, least culpably. 

Exercises in Construction. 

1. Write jive sentences, each containing an adverb of manner. 

2. Write five sentences, each containing an adverb of place. 

3. Write five sentences, each containing an adverb of time. 

4. Write five sentences, each containing an adverb of degree. 

5. Write sentences each containing one of the following adverbs : — 

Always, whether, seldom, " often, truly, chiefly, seldom, patiently, 
earnestly, very, move, how, indeed, first, secondly, perhaps, doubtless, 
however, whence, hither, yesterday, by-and-by, hitherto, heretofore, 
somewhere, anywhere. 

6. Write complex sentences, each consisting of a principal and depend' 
ent clause connected by one of the folloicing conjunctive adverbs : — 

When, while, where, till, since, before, after, as, because. 



112 ETYMOLOGY. 

XII.— CONJUNCTIONS. 

A conjunction is a word used to connect words or 
sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of 
the terms so connected. 

Classes. 

Conjunctions are divided into two general classes, 
copulative and disjunctive; and some of each of 
these sorts are corresponsive. 

A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that 
denotes an addition, a cause, or a supposition : as, " He and 
I shall not dispute ; for, if he has any choice, I *shall 
readily grant it." 

A disjunctive conjunction is a conjunction that 
denotes opposition of meaning ; as, " Be not overcome 
[by] evil, but overcome evil with good." — Bom. xii., 21. 

The corresponsive conjunctions are those which 
are used in pairs, so that one refers or answers to another ; 
as, " John came neither eating nor drinking." — Matthew 
xi., 18. 

The following are the principal conjunctions : — 

Copulative ; And, as, both, because, for, if, that, then, 
since, seeing, so. 

Disjunctive ; Or, nor, either, neither, than, though, al- 
though, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, save, notwithstanding. 

Corresponsive; Both — and; as—as; as — so; if 
— then ; either — or ; neither — nor ; whether — or ; though, or 
although — yet 



XIII.— PREPOSITIONS. 
A preposition is a word used to express some rela- 
tion of different things or thoughts to each other, and is 
generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. 



PREPOSITIONS. 113 

Obs. 1. — Prepositions are neither principal parts of a sentence, nor 
are they adjuncts. They are simply words used to express relation. 

Obs. 2. — Prepositions introduce phrases that are generally used as 
adjuncts ; as, "A man of reputation ; " equivalent to, A reputable man. 
— " In this place they settled ; " equivalent to, Here they settled. — " Fit 
for use," in which the phrase for use limits the adjective fit. Such 
phrases are usually called prepositional phrases. 

Obs. 3. — The noun or pronoun before which a preposition is placed 
is called its object, and the preposition always expresses the relation 
between its ob^ct and the word to which the prepositional phrase is an 
ad unct. Thus in the examples given above, of expresses the relation 
between man and reputation ; in, between settled and place; and for, 
between fit and use. 

List of the Prepositions. 

The following are the principal prepositions, arranged al- 
phabetically : Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, 
amid or amidst, among or amongst, around, at, athwart ; — Bat- 
ing, before, behind, below, beneath, beside or besides, between or 
betwixt, beyond, by; — Concerning; — Down, during; — Ere, ex- 
cept, excepting ; — For, from ; — In, into ; — Mid or midst ; — 
Notwithstanding ; — Of, off, on, over, overthwart ; — Past, pend- 
ing ; — Regarding, respecting, round ; — Since ; — Through, 
throughout, till, to, touching, toward or towards ;— Under, un- 
derneath, until, unto, up, upon ; — With, within, without 

Obs. 1. — The words in the preceding list are generally prepositions. 
But when any of them are employed without a subsequent term of rela- 
tion, they are either adjectives or adverbs. For, when it signifies be- 
cause, is a conjunction ; loithout, when used for unless, and notwith- 
standing, when placed before a nominative, are usually referred to the 
class of conjunctions also. 

Obs. 2. — Several words besides those contained in the foregoing list 
are (or have been) occasionally employed in English as prepositions ; as, 
A (chiefly used before participles), abaft, adown, afore, aloft, aloof, 
alongside, anear, anent, aslant, aslope, astride, aticeen, attcixt, by-west, 
cross, dehors, despite, inside, left-hand, mauger, minus, onto, opposite, 
outside, per, plus, sans, spite, thorough, traverse, versus, via, withal, 
withinside. 



114 ETYMOLOGY. 

Obs. 3. — Two or more words are sometimes used as a compound prep- 
osition, being combined so as to express a single relation. The follow- 
ing are examples : as to, as for, according to, because of, out of, from 
out, from among, from between, o-ver against. 

Exercise. 

Insert prepositions in place of the dashes in the following sentences : — 

Plead the dumb. Qualify thyself action study. 

Think often the value time. Be not dismayed 

Live peace all men. Keep the 

• moderation. Jest not serious subjects. Take no 

■ slander. Guilt starts its own shadow. Grudge not 



giving. Go not sleep malice. Depend not - 

the assistance others, but rely yourself. Many fail - 

grasping at things their reach. Go the world - 

your eyes open. 



XIV INTERJECTIONS. 

An interjection is a word that is uttered merely to 
indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind. 

Obs. 1. — Interjections have no relation to any other words in a sen- 
tence. They are neither adjuncts nor principal parts, being entirely 
independent. Properly considered, therefore, the interjection is not a 
part of speech, or part of a sentence. 

Obs. 2. — Of pure interjections but few are ordinarily admitted into 
books. As words or sounds of this kind serve rather to indicate feeling 
than to express thought, they seldom have any truly definable significa- 
tion. Their use also is so variable, that there can be no very accurate 
classification of them. Some significant words properly belonging to 
other classes, are ranked with interjections, when uttered with emotion 
and in an unconnected manner. 

List of the Interjections. 

The following are the principal interjections, arranged accor- 
ding to the emotions which they are generally intended to in- 
dicate : 1. Of joy; eigh ! hey ! io ! — 2. Of sorrow ; oh ! ah ! hoo ! 
alas ! alack ! lackaday ! ivelladay ! or ivelaway ! — 3. Of won- 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 115 

der ; heigh ! ha ! strange ! indeed ! — 4. Of wishing, earnestness, 
or vocative address ; (often with a noun or pronoun in the 
nominative absolute ;) ! — 5. Of praise ; well-done ! good ! 
bravo ! — 6. Of surprise with disapproval ; whew ! hoity-toity ! 
hoida ! zounds ! ivhat ! — 7. Of pain or fear ; oh ! ooh ! ah! eh ! . 
dear ! — 8. Of contempt ; fudge ! pugh ! poh ! pshaio ! pish ! 
tush ! tut ! humph ! — 9. Of aversion ; foh ! faugh ! fie ! fy ! 
foyl — 10. Of expulsion; out! off! shoo! whew! begone! 
avaunt! aroynt! — 11. Of calling aloud ; ho! soho! what-ho ! 
hollo! holla! hallo! halloo! hoy! ahoy! — 12. Of exultation; 
ah ! aha ! huzza ! hey ! heyday ! hurrah ! — 13. Of laughter ; ha, 
ha, ha ; he, he, he ; te-hee, te-hee. — 14. Of salutation ; welcome ! 
hail ! all hail ! — 15. Of calling to attention ; ho ! lo ! la ! law ! 
look ! see ! behold ! hark ! — 16. Of calling to silence ; hush ! 
hist! whist! 'st! aw! mum! — 17. Of dread or horror; oh! 
ha ! hah ! what ! — 18. Of languor or weariness ; heigh-ho ! 
heigh-ho-hum ! — 19. Of stopping ; hold ! soft ! avast ! whoa !— 
20. Of parting ; farewell ! adieu ! good-by ! good-day! — 21. Of 
knowing or detecting ; oho ! aha ! ay-ay ! — 22. Of interro- 
gating ; eh? ha? hey? 

Obs. — Besides these, there are several others, too often heard, which 
are unworthy to be considered as parts of a cultivated language. The 
frequent use of interjections savors more of thoughtlessness than of sen- 
sibility. 



XV.— ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 

Phrases. 

A phrase is a combination of two or more words 
expressing some relation of ideas, but no entire prop- 
osition ; as, " Of a good disposition." — " To be plain with 
you." — " Having loved his own." 

A phrase may be used in three ways : 1, as one of the 
principal parts of a sentence; 2, as an adjunct ; 3, it may 
be independent. 



116 ETYMOLOGY. 

Aii adjunct phrase is adjective, adverbial, or ex- 
planatory. 

A substantive phrase is one used in the place 
of a noun ; as, " To do good is the duty of all." 

An independent phrase is one that is not related 
to, or connected with, any word in the rest of the sentence; 
as, " He failing, who shall meet success ? " — " To he 
plain with you, I think you in fault." 

The principal part of a phrase is that upon which 
all the other parts depend ; as, " Under every misfortune" 
— " Having exhausted every expedient." 

Phrases are either simple, complex, or com- 
pound. 

A simple phrase is one unconnected with any other ; 
as, " Of an obliging disposition." 

A complex phrase is one that contains a phrase or 
a clause, as an adjunct of its principal part ; as, " By the 
bounty of heaven." — " To be plain with you." 

A compound phrase is one composed of two or 
more co-ordinate phrases; as, " Stooping down and looking 
in." 

Phrases are also classified as to their form, depending 
upon the introducing word, or the principal part ; thus, 

1. A phrase, introduced by a preposition, is called a 
prepositional phrase / as, " By doing good." — " Of an en- 
gaging disposition." 

2. A phrase the principal part of which is a verb in the 
infinitive mood, is called an infinitive phrase ; as, " To he 
good is to he happy." 

3. A phrase the principal word of which is a participle, 
is called a participial phrase ; as, " A measure founded 
on justice." 

Obs. 1. — A preposition that introduces a phrase, serves only to express 
the relation between the principal part, and the word of the sentence 
on which the phrase depends. 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 117 

A phrase, used as the subject or the object of a verb, must 
be substantive iu office, and, with a strict adherence to gram- 
matical rules, can only be infinitive in form ; as, " To disobey 
parents is sinful." — "William loves to study grammar" Par- 
ticipial phrases are, however, sometimes used by good writers 
in this Avay ; as, "Hunting the buffalo, is one of the sports of 
the West." — "John's father opposed his going to sea," 

A phrase, used as an attribute, may be substantive or adjec- 
tive in office, and may have the following forms : — 

1. Infinitive; as, "The object of punishment is to reform 
the guilty." — "His conduct is greatly to be admired." [In the 
latter example, the phrase is adjective, to be admired being- 
equivalent to admirable.'] 

2. Prepositional; as, "He is in good health." — "The train 
was behind time." [In each of these examples, the phrase is 
adjective.'] 

An adjective phrase may have the following forms : — 

1. Prepositional ; as, " Carelessness in the use of money is a 
vice." 

2. Infinitive ; as, " The desire to do good is praiseworthy." 

3. Participial ; as, "Seeing the danger, he avoided it." 
An adverbial phrase may have the following forms : — 

1. Prepositional ; as, "He was attentive to his business." 

2. Infinitive; as, "They were anxious to ascertain the truth" 

3. Idiomatic ; as, "In vain." — "Day by day." — "By and 
by." — "As a general thing." 

An explanatory phrase is always substantive in office, and 
infinitive in form ; as, "It is pleasant to see the sun." 

The independent phrase is various in form and character. 
It may be distinguished as — 

1. Infinitive ; as, "To be candid, I was in fault." 

2. Participial ; as, " Considering the circumstances, much 
credit is due." 

3. Vocative; as, "Boast not, my dear friend, of to-morrow." 

4. Pleonastic ; as, " The blessing of the Lord, it maketh 
rich." 



118 ETYMOLOGY. 

5. Absolute ; as, " The sun having risen, the mists were dis- 
persed." 

Obs. 1. — The last form of this phrase is often adverbial in significa- 
tion ; as in the example given, in which it is equivalent to the clause, 
when the sun had risen. It is, therefore, independent only in construc- 
tion. 

Obs. 2. — An adverbial phrase may be modified by an adverb; as, 
"It lasts but for a moment;" i.e., but equivalent to only, and modify- 
ing the adverbial phrase, for a moment. 

Obs. 3. — A phrase or a clause is sometimes used as the object of a 
preposition, and thus forms a prepositional phrase of a complex or 
anomalous character; as, "Blows mildew from between-his-shriveled- 
lips." — "That depends on who-can-run-the- fastest." 



Exercises in Analysis and Parsing. 

Praxis IV.— Etymological. 

In the Fourth Praxis, it is required of the pupil : to classify and ana- 
lyze the sentence as in the preceding praxis ; to classify and analyze 
each phrase ; and to parse the sentence, distinguishing the parts of 
speech, and all their classes and modifications. Thus : — 

Example Analyzed and Parsed. 

11 Ah ! who can tell the triumphs of the mind, 
By truth illumined, and by taste refined ? " 

Analysis. — A simple interrogative sentence. 

The subject is who ; the predicate verb, can tell ; the object of which is triumphs, 
modified by the complex adjective phrase, of the mind illumined by truth, and refined 
by ta*te. 

The principal part of the phrase is mind ; its adjuncts are the and the compound 
adjective phrase, illumined by truth, and refined by taste, which consists of the two co- 
ordinate participial phrases connected by and 

The principal part of the former is illumined, and its adjunct, the simple adverbial 
phrase, by truth ; the principal part of the latter xs refined, and its adjunct, the simple 
adverbial phrase by taste. 

Ah is an independent word. 

Pausing.— Ah ! is an interjection, because it is a simple exclamation of wonder or 
admiration. 

Who is an interrogative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, common in 
gender ; and in Ihe nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb can tell. 

By is a preposition, because it shows the relation between truth and illumined, the 
phrase by truth being an adjunct of illumined. 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 119 

Truth is a common noun, and abstract, because it is the name of a quality. It is of 
the third person, singular number, neuter gender ; and in the objective case, because it 
is the object of the preposition by. 

Illumined is a perfect participle from the regular passive verb be illumined. It per- 
forms the office of a verb, by expressing passion ; and of an adjective, by modifying the 
noun mind. 

And is a conjunction, because it connects the two phrases, by truth illumined, by taste 
refined ; it is copulative, because it expresses an addition. 

[Parse the other words as in the preceding praxes.] 

Having sold his patrimony lie engaged in merchandise. 

The bounty displayed on the earth equals the grandeur manifested in 
the heavens. 

In the varieties of life, we are inured to habits both of the active and 
the suffering virtues. 

By disappointments and trials, the violence of our passions is tamed. 

He, stooping down and looking in, saw the linen clothes lying ; yet 
went he not in. 

Cheerfulness keeps up a kind of day-light in the mind, and fills it 
with a steady and perpetual serenity. 

Sitting is the best posture for deliberation ; standing for persuasion ; 
a judge, therefore, should speak sitting ; a pleader, standing. 

The pleasures of sense resemble a foaming torrent ; which, after a 
disorderly course, speedily runs out, and leaves an empty and offensive 
channel. 

Most of the troubles which we meet with in the world, arise from an 
irritable temper, or from improper conduct. 

The meeting was so respectable, that the propriety of its decision can 
hardly be questioned. 

They who are moderate in their expectations, meet with few disap- 
pointments. 

The soul becomes great by the habitual contemplation of great 
objects. 

Exercises in Construction. 

1. Write sentences, each containing a phrase of one of the following 
forms. 

A simple adjective phrase. A simple adverbial phrase. A complex 
adjective phrase. A complex adverbial phrase. A compound phrase. 
An explanatory phrase. A participial phrase. A complex prepositional 
phrase. An infinitive phrase. A vocative phrase. An absolute phrase. 
An idiomatic phrase. A phrase used as the subject. A phrase used as 
an object. A phrase used as an adjective attribute. A phrase used as 
a substantive attribute. 



120 



ETYMOLOGY. 



2. In the following sentences, substitute a phrase for one of the clauses. 
Examples. 



1. When the ship arrives, I shall 
see my friend. 

2. After the pupils had recited 
their lessons, the teacher dismissed 
them. 

3. They erected a crucifix, and 
prostrated themselves before it. 

4. A quadruped is an animal that 
has four lees. 



1. On the arrival of the ship, I 
shall see my friend. 

2. The pupils having recited 
their lessons, the teacher dismissed 
them. 

3. Having erected a crucifix, they 
prostrated themselves before it. 

4. A quadruped is an animal hav- 
ing four legs. 



When spring conies, the fields resume their verdure. 

After the enemy had been defeated, they fled. 

I Trill meet you, when the train arrives. 

As he was stooping down, he saw the man's hiding-place. 

Because he was inexperienced, they deceived him. 

I fixed my eyes on the object, and soon perceived that it was a bird. 

The farm was carefully cultivated, and it yielded abundant crops. 

The rain fell in torrents, and we took refuge in an inn. 

As I did not receive your letter, I did-not know of your misfortune. 

He who had been so idle and dissolute came to beggary. 

He sacrificed his health and happiness that he might indulge in sen- 
sual pleasure. [Use the infinitive phrase.] 

She neglected the improvement of her mind, that she might study her 
appearance in the glass. 

3. Construct a sentence from each of the following phrases. 

At all times. In the hour of temptation. In the morning of life. To 
be useful to others. To be diligent in study. The moon having risen. 
The battle having been lost. By doing good. Preserving a good repu- 
tation. Trembling with excitement. Discouraged by misfortune. From 
day to day. By and by. As a general thing. He being young and 
without experience. Overcome with emotion. Suppressing her tears. 

Questions for Review, 

I. — The Sentence. 

What is the subject of a sentence ? — The predicate ? 

What is a proposition ? — What do propositions form ? 

What is a sentence ? 

What must every sentence contain ? 

What are adjuncts ?— What is a simple sentence '! 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 121 

How are sentences divided ? 

What is a declarative sentence ? — An interrogative sentence ? — An impera- 
tive sentence '? — An exclamatory sentence ? 

II.— Parts of Speech. 

Of what does Etymology treat ? 
How many and what are the parts of speech ? 
What is an article ? — What are the examples ? 
What is a noun ?— What examples are given ? 
What is an adjective ? — How is this exemplified ? 
What is a pronoun ? — How is this exemplified ? 
What is a verb ? — How is this exemplified ? 
What is a participle ? — How is this exemplified ? 
What is an adverb ? — How is this exemplified ? 
What is a conjunction ? — How is this exemplified ? 
What is a preposition ? — How is this exemplified ? 
What is an interjection ? — What examples are given ? 

What is a definition ? — A rule of grammar ? — A praxis ? — An example ?— 
An exercise ? 
What is parsing ? 

HI. — Articles. 
What is an Article ? 

Are an and a different articles, or the same ? 
When is an used, and what are the examples ? 
When is a used, and what are the examples ? 
What form of the article do the sounds of w and y require ? 
Repeat the alphabet, with an or a before the name of each letter. 
Name the parts of speech, with an or a before each name. 
How are the two articles distinguished in grammar ? 
Which is the definite article, and what does it denote ? 
Which is the indefinite article, and what does it denote ? 
What modifications have the articles ? 

IV.— Nouns. 

What is a Noun ? — Can you give some examples ? 
Into what general classes are norms divided ? 
What is a, proper noun ? — a common noun ? 
What particular classes are included among common nouns ? 
What is a collective noun ? — an abstract noun ? — a verbal or participial 
noun? 

What is a thing sici generis ? 

What modifications have nouns ? 

What are Persons in grammar ? 

How many persons are there, and what are they called ? 

What is the first person ? — the second person ? — the third person ? 

What are Numbers in grammar ? 

a 



122 ETYMOLOGY. 

How many numbers are there, and what are they called '? 
What is the singular number '? — the plural number ? 
How is the plural number of nouns regularly formed ? 
What are the rules for adding s and es to form the plural 4 ? 

V.— Nouns. 
What are Genders in grammar ? 

How many genders are there, and what are they called ? 
What is the masculine gender ? — the feminine gender ? — the neuto 
gender ? What nouns may be said to be in the common gender ? 
What are Cases in grammar ? 

How many cases are there, and what are they called V 
What is the nominative case ? 
What is the subject of a verb ? 
What is the possessive case ? 
How is the possessive case of nouns formed ? 
What is the objective case ? 

What is the object of a verb, participle, or preposition ? 
What is the declension of a noun ? 
How do you decline the nouns friend, man, fox, and fly ? 

VI.— Analysis, Construction, and Composition. 
What is Analysis ? 
What is a simple sentence ? — a phrase ? 
Of what does the subject of a sentence consist ? 
How are adjuncts divided ? 

What is an adjective adjunct ? — an adverbial adjunct ? — an explanatory 
adjunct ? 
By what adjuncts may nouns be modified ? — Verbs ? 
What is an attribute ? 

In analyzing a sentence, what should be pointed out ? 
What is construction ? — Composition ? 
When do sentences form a composition ? 

VII. —Adjectives. 

What is an Adjective ?— How is this exemplified ? 

Into what classes may adjectives be divided ? 

What is a common adjective ? — a proper adjective ? — a numeral adjective ? 
-a pronominal adjective ? — a, participial adjective ? — a compound adjective ? 

What modifications have adjectives ? 

What is Comparison in grammar ? 

How many, and what are the degrees of comparison ? 

What is the positive degree ? — the comparative degree ? — the superlative 
degree ? 

What adjectives cannot be compared ? 

What adjectives are compared by means of adverbs ? 

How are adjectives regularly compared ? — Compare great, wide, and hot. 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 123 

To what adjectives are er and est applicable ? 

Is there any other mode of expressing the degrees ? 

How are the degrees of diminution expressed ? 

How do you compare good, bad or ill, little, much, and many ? 

How do you compare far, near, fore, hind, in, out, up, low, and late? 

VHI. — Pronouns. 
What is a Pronoun ? — Give the example. 
How are pronouns divided ? 

What is a personal pronoun ? — Tell the personal pronouns. 
What is a relative pronoun ? — Tell the relative pronouns. 
What peculiarity has the relative what ? 
What is an interrogative pronoun ? — Tell the interrogatives. 
What modifications have pronouns ? 
What is the declension of a pronoun ? 
How do you decline the pronouns I, thou, he, she, and it ? 
What is said of the compound personal pronouns ? 
How do you decline who, which, what, and that ? 
How do you decline the compound relative pronouns ? 

IX.— Analysis. 

What is a clause ? — What are members ? 

What is a dependent clause ? — a principal clause ? 

What is a complex sentence ? — a compound sentence ? 

How may clauses be connected ? 

What is a relative clause ? 

Is the relative clause dependent or independent ? 

Is it always a modifying clause ? — Illustrate. 

What is a compound subject or predicate ? 

X. — Verbs. 

What is a Verb ? — What are the examples ? 

How are verbs divided with respect to their form ? 

What is a regular verb ? — an irregular verb ? — a redundant verb ? — a 
defective verb ? 

How are verbs divided with respect to their signification ? 

What is an active-transitive verb ? — an active-intransitive verb ? — a passive 
verb ? — a neuter verb ? 

What modifications have verbs ? 

What are Moods in grammar ? 

How many moods are there, and what are they called ? 

What is the infinitive mood ? — the indicative mood ? — the potential mood ? 
— the subjunctive mood ? — the imperative mood ? 

XL— Verbs. 

What are Tenses in grammar ? 

How many tenses are there, and what arc they called ? 



124 ETYMOLOGY. 

What is the present tense ? — the imperfect tense ? — the perfect tense ? — the 
pluperfect tense ? — the first-future tense ? — the second-future tense ? 
What are the Person and Number of a verb '( 
How many persons and numbers belong to verbs ? 
now are the second and third persons singular formed ? 
What is the conjugation of a verb ? 

What are the principal parts in the conjugation of a verb ? 
What is a verb called which wants some of these parts ? 
What is an auxiliary verb ? 
What verbs are used as auxiliaries ? 

XII. — Conjugation. 

What is the simplest form of an English conjugation ? 
What is the first example of conjugation "'. 
"What are the principal parts of the verb love ? 

How many and what tenses has the infinitive mood ? — the indicative ? — the 
potential ? — the subjunctive ? — the imperative ? 
What is the compound form of active and neuter verbs ? 
What peculiar meaning does this form convey ? 
How are passive verbs formed ? 
How is a verb conjugated negatively ? 
How is the form of negation exemplified ? 
How is a verb conjugated interrogatively / 
How is the form of question exemplified ? 
How is a verb conjugated interrogatively and negatively ? 
What verbs in English are defective ? 
What tenses are wanting in these verbs ? 
What verbs are called impersonal? 

XIII. —Participles. 

What is a Participle '? and how is it generally formed ? 

How many participles are there, and what are they called ? 

How is the imperfect participle denned, and what are the examples? 

How is the pe?fect participle defined, and what are the examples ! 

How is the prep er feet participle defined, and what are the examples ? 

How is the imperfect participle formed ? 

How is the perfect participle formed ? 

How is the preperfect participle formed ? 

How many participles has the active verb ? — the passive verb ? 

Into what other classes may participles be separated ? 

Which class are called gerundives ? 

XIV.— Adverbs and Conjunctions. 

What is an Adverb ? — What is the example ? 

To what classes may adverbs be reduced ? 

Which are adverbs of time ? — of place ? — of degree? — of manner ■ 

What are conjunctive adverbs V 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 125 

Have adverbs any modifications ? 

Compare well, badly or ill, little, much, far and forth. 

What is a Conjunction ? — How are conjunctions divided ? 

What is a copulative conjunction? — a disjunctive conjunction? — a corre- 
sponsive conjunction ? 

What are the copulative conjunctions ? — the disjunctive ? — the correspon- 
sive v 

XV.— Pkepositions and Interjections. 

What is a Preposition ? — How are the prepositions arranged ? 

What are the prepositions beginning with a ?— with 6 ? — with c? — with d? 
— with e ? — with / ? — with i ? — with m ? — with n ? — with o ? — with p ? — with 
r ? — with s ?— with t ? — with u ? — with w ? 

What is an Interjection ? — How are interjections arranged ? 

What are the interjections of joy? — of sorrow? — of wonder? — of wishing 
or earnestness ? — of praise ? — of surprise ? — of pain or fear ?— of contempt ?— 
of aversion ? — of expulsion ? — of calling aloud ? — of exultation ? — of laughter ? 
— of salutation ? — of calling to attention ? — of calling to silence ? — of surprise ? 
— of languor ? — of stopping ? — of parting ? — of knowing or detecting ? — of 
interrogating ? 

XVI— Analysis and Parsing. 
What is & phrase? 

How may a phrase be used ? — What is a substantive phrase ? 
What is an independent phrase ? — the principal part of a phrase ? 
What is a simple phrase? — What is a complex phrase ? 
What is a compound phrase ? 
How are phrases classified as to their form ? 
Of what form are attribute phrases ? — Explanatory phrases ? 



PART III, 



SYNTAX. 

Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, 
and arrangement of words in sentences. 

Obs. 1. — The word syntax is derived from two Greek words — syn, 
meaning together, and taxis, arrangement. It is equivalent, in mean- 
ing, to synthesis or construction, which is the reverse of analysis. Syn- 
tax has reference only to those principles and rules which serve to guide 
us in the construction of sentences. The principles of analysis lie much 
deeper in the subject of grammar— are much more fundamental, than 
the technical considerations which form the groundwork of syntactical 
rules. 

Sentential analysis is founded upon the general laws of language ; and, 
therefore, its principles are as applicable to one language as another ; 
syntactical rules, on the other hand, can, as a general thing, have refer- 
ence only to the particular language, the use of which they are designed 
to direct. 

In order to be skilled in syntax, or the construction of sentences, we 
must know how the words are related to each other in the expression of 
thought. For example, if the words John and book are to be joined, 
and we know that they are to denote that the book belongs to John, we 
say John's book, expressing in this way the relation of property. 

Again, if we are to join the words the teacher, he, and love together, 
to form a sentence, we must know the relations. Thus suppose the 
teacher is the subject of the action expressed by the verb love, and he is 
the object of the action ; then the sentence must be, The teacher loves 
him, giving to the verb and pronoun their proper forms according to the 
relations. But suppose he is to be the subject, and the teacher the 
object ; then the sentence would be, He loves the teacher. This, as will 
be seen, requires a different arrangement of the words, as well as a dif- 
ferent inflection of the pronoun. Usually the subject is placed before 
the verb, and the object after it. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 127 

When a word standing in a certain relation to another word is required, 
on that account, to undergo some inflection or modification, it is said to 
be governed by the other word. Thus, in the above, John, standing as 
the possessor of book, was changed to John's ; and he, when used as' the 
object of the verb, was required to assume the objective iorn± u Mm. In 
the former case, John's is said to be governed by book, and him by loves. 

Again, it would not do to say Birds flies, because the form of the verb 
is singular, while the subject is plural ; and the two must' agree. Hence, 
the expression should be Birds fly. • This will illustrate what is meant 
by agreement. Hence the following definitions. 

The, relation of words, is their dependence, or con- 
nection, according to the sense. 

The agreement of words, is their similarity in per- 
son, number, gender, case, mood, tense, or form. 

The government of words, is that power which one 
word has over another, to cause it to assume some particu- 
lar modification. 

The arrangement of words, is their collocation, or 
relative position, in a sentence. 

Mules of Syntax. 

The Rules Of Syntax are designed to guide in the ap- 
plication of the principles of grammar to the construction of 
sentences. 

As given below these rules are classified and arranged ac- 
cording to the syntactical topics to which they respectively 
relate. 

Rules of Relation. 

I. — Articles relate to the nouns which they limit. 

II. — Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns. 

m. — Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or 
other adverbs. 

IV. — Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are 
governed by prepositions. 

V. — Prepositions show the relation of things. 



128 SYNTAX. 

Rules of Agreement. 

VI. — A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite 
verb, must be in the nominative case. 

VII. — A noun or a personal pronoun used to explain a pre- 
ceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same 
case. 

VHI. — A finite verb must agree with its subject, or nomi- 
native, in person and number. 

IX. — WheD the nominative is a collective noun conveying 
the idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it in the plural 
number ; but when it conveys the idea of unity, the verb must 
be singular. 

X. — When a verb has two or more nominatives connected 
by and, it must agree with them in the plural number. 

XI — When a verb has two or more singular nominatives 
connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the singu- 
lar number. 

XII. — When verbs are connected by a conjunction, they 
must either agree in mood, tense, and form, or have separate 
nominatives expressed. 

XIII. — Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, and 
their participles, take the same case after as before them, 
when both words refer to the same thing. 

XIV. — A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the 
noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and 
gender. 

XV. — When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying 
the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the 
plural number ; but when it conveys the idea of unity, the 
pronoun must be singular. 

XVI. — When a pronoun has two or more antecedents con- 
nected by and, it must agree with them in the plural number. 

XVII. — When a pronoun has two or more singular antece- 
dents connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the 
singular number. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 129 

Rules of Government. 

XVm. — A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is 
governed by the name of the thing possessed. 

XIX. — Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and pre- 
perfect participles, govern the objective case. 

XX. — Prepositions govern the objective case. 

XXI. — The preposition to commonly governs the infinitive 
mood, and connects it to a finite verb, or some other part of 
speech. 

Miscellaneous Rules. 

XXTT. — The active verbs, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, 
need, see, and their participles, usually take the infinitive after 
them, without the preposition to. 

XXTTT. — A future contingency is best expressed by a verb 
in the subjunctive, present ; and a mere supposition, with in- 
definite time, by a verb in the subjunctive, imperfect ; but a 
conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, requires the in- 
dicative mood. 

XXTV. — A noun or a pronoun is put in the nominative, 
when its case depends on no other word. 

XXV. — Conjunctions connect either words or sentences. 

XXVI. — Interjections have no dependent construction. 

Obs. 1. — Syntactical rules are limited to the construction of sentences, 
as separate portions of discourse ; the consideration of those principles 
and rules which regulate the combination of sentences into paragraphs, 
and these again into particular kinds of composition, is not comprised 
in the subject of grammar, but falls within the province of its kindred 
arts, rhetoric and logic. 

Obs. 2. — Some of the rules here given embody the principles already 
presented in the definitions of etymology, and, owing to the paucity of 
inflections in English, are of little practical use in the construction of 
sentences. 

Obs. 3. — Analysis and synthesis, or construction, should go together, 
the former illustrating and facilitating the latter, and giving accuracy in 
composition ; since it will be found that the pupils who have been 
6* 



130 SYNTAX. 

trained to analyze sentences, becoming in this way familiar with their 
structure, and the relation of their parts, will have a clearer and fuller 
comprehension of language, as well as a more correct style of writing. 

As the rules afford practical directions, a new class of exer- 
cises is here introduced, — the correction of improper expres- 
sions, or false Syntax, as usually called. 

Under the twenty-six principal rules and their notes (sub- 
ordinate rules) and observations (showing various usages) are 
included the directions requisite to guide the pupil in the 
analysis, parsing, construction, and correction of sentences. 
These are classified according to the syntactical topics to 
which they respectively relate. 



I.— RELATION. 

Rule l„— Articles. 

Articles relate to the nouns which they limit ; as, " At 
a little distance from the ruins of the abbey, stands an 
aged elm." 

Exceptions. 

1. The definite article, used intensively, may relate to an adjective or 
adverb ' >" the comparative or the superlative degree ; as, "A land which 
was the mightiest." — Byron. " The farther they proceeded, the greater 
appeared their alacrity. " — Dr. Johnson. 

2. The indefinite article is sometimes used to give a collective meaning 
to an adjective of number ; as, ' ' Thou hast a feic names, even in Sar- 
dis."— Revelation. " There are a thousand things which crowd into my 
memory. " — Addison. 

Observations. 

1. Articles often relate to nouns understood; as, "The [river] 
Thames." — "Pliny the younger" [man]. — "The honorable [body], the 
Legislature." — "Theanimal [icorld] and the vegetable world." — "Neither 
to the right [hand] nor to the left" [hand]. — Bible. "He was a good 
man and a just " [man]. — lb. 

2. When an adjective precedes the noun, the article is placed before 
the adjective, that its power may extend over that also ; except the ad- 
jectives all, such, many, what, both, and those which are preceded by 



KELATIOJST. 131 

the adverbs too, so, as, or how ; as, ' ' All the materials were bought at 
too dear a rate." — " Like many an other poor wretch, I now suffer all the 
ill consequences of so foolish an indulgence." 

o. Articles, according to their own definition, belong before their 
nouns ; but the definite article and an adjective seem, sometimes to be 
placed after the noun to which they both relate ; as, ' ' Section the 
Fourth." — "Henry the Eighth." 

4. When the definite article is prefixed to comparatives and super- 
latives (exception first), the article has the force of an adverb. 

5. The article the is sometimes elegantly used instead of a possessive 
pronoun : as, " Men who have not bowed t7ielsiiee to the image of Baal." 

6. When an or a is put before an adjective of number (exception 
second), the adjective and the plural noun following it are taken together 
as a unit. 

7. An or a has sometimes the import of each or every ; as, " He 
came twice a year." The article in this sense with a preposition under- 
stood, is preferable to the mercantile per, so frequently used ; as, "Fifty 
cents [for] a bushel," — rather than, " per bushel." 

8. A, as prefixed to participles in ing, or used in composition, is a 
preposition ; being, probably, the French a, signifying to, at, on, in, or 
of; as, " They burst out a laughing." — M. Edgeworth. " He is gone a 
hunting." — "She lies a-bed all day." — "He stays out a-nights." — 
"They ride out ^-Sundays." Shakspeare often uses the prefix a, and 
sometimes in a manner peculiar to himself; as, " Tom's a cold." — "« 
weary. " 

9. An is sometimes used as a conjunction, signifying if; as, 

" Nay, an thou'lt niouthe, I'll rant as well as thou." — Shak. 

Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 

I. — When the indefinite article is required, a should always 
be used before the sound of a consonant, and an, before that 
of a vowel ; as, " With the talents of an angel, a man may 
be a fool." — Young. 

Exception. — Words commencing with h, and accented on the second 
syllable, require an instead of a ; as, An historical essay. — An hexago- 
nal figure. 

II. — When nouns are joined in construction, without a close 
connection and common dependence, the article must be re- 
peated ; as, "She never considered the quality, but the merit 
of her visitors." 



132 SYNTAX. 

TTT — When adjectives are connected, and the qualities be- 
long to things individually different, though of the same 
name, the article should be repeated ; as, A black and a white 
horse ;" — i.e., two horses, one black and the other white. 

IV. — When adjectives are connected, and the qualities all 
belong to the same thing or things, the article should not be 
repeated; as, "A black and white horse;" — i.e., one horse, 
piebald. 

Obs. 1. — The reason of the two preceding notes is this ; by a repeti- 
tion of the article before several adjectives in the same construction, a 
repetition of the noun is implted ; but without a repetition of the article, 
the adjectives are confined to one and the same noun. 

Obs. 2. — To avoid a repetition, we sometimes, with one article, join 
inconsistent qualities to a plural noun ; as, ' ' The Old and New Testa- 
ments," — for, " The Old and the New Testament." But the phrases, 
"The Old and New Testament," and, "The Old and the New Testa- 
ments" are both obviously incorrect. 

V. — The article should not be used before the names of 
virtues, vices, passions, arts or sciences ; before simple proper 
names ; or before any noun whose signification is sufficiently 
definite without it ; as, "Falsehood is odious." — "Iron is use- 
ful." — "Beauty is vain." 

VI. — When titles are mentioned merely as titles, or names 
of things merely as names or words, the article should not be 
used ; as, "He is styled Marquis." — "Ought a teacher to call 
his pupil Master f " 

VIE. — In expressing a comparison, if both nouns refer to 
the same subject, the article should not be inserted ; if to 
different subjects, it should not be omitted ; thus, if we say, 
" He is a better teacher than poet," we compare different 
qualifications of the same man ; but if we say, "He is a bet- 
ter teacher than a poet," we refer to different men. 

Vm. — The definite article, or some other definitive word, is 
generally required before the antecedent to the pronoun who 
or which in a restrictive clause ; as, " The men who were pres- 
ent, consented." 



KELATIOl^. 133 

IX. — The article is generally required in that construction 
which converts a participle into a verbal noun ; as, " The tri- 
umphing of the wicked is short." — "They shall be an abhor- 
ring unto all flesh." — Isaiah. 

X. — The article should not be prefixed to a participle that 
is not taken in all respects as a noun ; as, " He made a mis- 
take in giving out the text." Not the giving out. 

False Syntax. 

Correct the following sentences, and show in what way the rule is 
violated in each. 

When the corrections are made orally, the formules given may be used, in the judg- 
ment of the teacher, the chief object being kept in view, which is not to check the exer- 
cise of intelligence by mechanical repetition, but to exercise the critical faculty of the 
learner, and teach him to make a practical application of his knowledge of principles 
and rules. 

Example. — He went into an house. 

FORMtriiE. — Not proper, because the article an is used before house, which begins 
with the sound of the consonants. But, according to Note I. , under Rule I., "When 
the indefinite article is required, a should always be used before the sound of a conso- 
nant, and an before that of a vowel." Therefore, an should be a ; thus, He went into a 
house. 

I. 

This is an hard saying. 

Passing from an earthly to an heavenly diadem. 

Few have the happiness of living with such an one. 

She evinced an uniform adherence to the truth. 

This is truly an wonderful invention. 

He is an younger man than we supposed. 

An humorsome child is never long pleased. 

Your friend is a honorable man. 

The elephant is a herbivorous animal. 

She was taken with a hysterical fit. 

n. 

Avoid rude sports : an eye is soon lost, or bone broken. 

As the drop of the bucket and dust of the balance. 

Not a word was uttered, nor sign given. 

I despise not the doer, but deed. 

Crime consists not in the act but motive. 



134 SYNTAX. 

in. 

What is the difference between the old and new method ? 

The sixth and tenth have a close resemblance. 

Is Paris on the right hand or left? 

Does Peru join the Atlantic or Pacific ocean ? 

He was influenced both by a just and generous principle. 

The book was read by the old and young. 

I have both the large and small grammar. 

Are both the north and south Hue measured? 

Are the north line and south line measured? 

Are both the north and south measured ? 

Are both the north lines and south measured ? 

IV. 

Is the north and the south line measured ? 

Are the two north and the south lines both measured ? 

A great and a good man looks beyond time. 

They made but a weak and an ineffectual resistance. 

The Alleghany and the Monongahela rivers form the Ohio. 

I rejoice that there is another and a better world. 

Were God to raise up another such a man as Moses. 

The light and the worthless kernels will float. 

V. 

Cleon was another sort of a man. 

There is a species of an animal called a seal. 

Let us wait in the patience and the quietness. 

The contemplative mind delights in the silence. 

Arithmetic is a branch of the mathematics. 

You will never have another such a chance. 

I expected some such an answer. 

And I persecuted this way unto the death. 

VI. 

He is entitled to the appellation of a gentleman. 
Cromwell assumed the title of a Protector. 
Her father is honored with the title of an Earl. 
The chief magistrate is stvled a President. 



RELATION. 135 

The highest title in the State is that of the Governor. 
The oak, the pine, and the ash are names of whole classes 
of objects. 

vn. 

He is a better writer than a reader. 

He was an abler mathematician than a linguist. 

I should rather have an orange than apple. 

vm. 

"Words which are signs of complex ideas, are liable to be 
misunderstood. 

Carriages which were formerly in use were very clumsy. 

The place is not mentioned by geographers who wrote at 
that time. 

LX. 

Means are always necessary to accomplishing of ends. 
By seeing of the eye, and hearing of the ear, learn wisdom, 
In keeping of His commandments, there is great reward. 
For revealing of a secret, there is no remedy. 
Have you no repugnance to torturing of animals ? 

X. 

By the breaking the law, you dishonor the lawgiver. 
An argument so weak is not worth the mentioning. 
In the letting go our hope, we let all go. 
Avoid the talking too much of your ancestors. 
The cuckoo keeps the repeating her unvaried notes. 
Forbear the boasting of what you can do. 

Promiscuous. 

The path of truth is a plain and a safe one. 
This statement is merely a hypothesis. 
There was an harshness in his words. 
Neither the rules nor examples are correct. 
He fully deserved the name of a traitor. 
He is a more effective writer than a speaker. 
What sort of an animal is an oyster ? 



136 SYNTAX. 

She was carrying an ewer of water. 

He was busy in the translating a French work. 

This passage has another and a different meaning. 

It showed what kind of a man he was. 

What is the cost of a hour-glass ? 

Is there any difference between the upper and lower side ? 

Travelers who visited the country were put to death. 

Parsing, 

In the parsing exercise under each rule, the pupil is required to apply the information 
given in the observations. Hence they should be read or studied very carefully. 

Parse the articles in the following sentences as in the example. 
Example. — "He was a friend to the unfortunate." 

A is the indefinite article, and relates to the noun friend, according to the rule, — 
Articles relate to the nouns which they limit. 

The is the definite article, and relates to persons, understood (unfortunate persons), 
according to the rule, etc. 

Charles the Fifth ahdicated the throne of Germany. The longer he 
lived the more he feared to die. He was the victor in a hundred con- 
flicts. The farmer sold his wheat at one dollar a bushel. Many an 
innocent man has been wrongfully condemned. The oracle pronounced 
Socrates the wisest of men. He tried to set the clock a going. 



Rule II.— Adjectives. 

Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns; as, "He is a 
wise man, though he is young." 

Exceptions. 

1. An adjective sometimes relates to a phrase or sentence, which is 
made the subject of an intervening verb ; as, " To insult the afflicted, is 
impious." — tk That he should refuse, is not strange." 

2. With an infinitive or a participle denoting being or action in the 
abstract, an adjective is sometimes also taken abstractly ; that is, with- 
out reference to any particular noun, pronoun, or other subject ; as, 
"To be sincere, is to be wise, innocent, and safe." — Hawkeswoi'th. 
11 Capacity marks the abstract quality of being able to receive or hold." 
These adjectives may be considered indefinite attributes. 



RELATION. 137 

Observations. 

1. Adjectives often relate to nouns understood; as, "The nine" 
[muses]. — "Philip was one of the seven " [deacons]. — Acts xxi., 8. "He 
came unto his own [possessions], and his own [men] received him not." 
— John i., 11. "The Lord your God is God of gods, and Lord of lords, 
a great God, a mighty [God], and a terrible " [God]. — JDeut. x., 17. 

2. In the construction of sentences, adjectives often relate immediately 
to pronouns; as, " All ye are his brethren." — Matt. "Whether of 
them twain did the will of his father ? " — lb. 

3. When an adjective follows a finite verb, and is not followed by a 
noun, it generally relates to the subject of the verb ; as, " i"am glad that 
the door is made wide." Thus the adjective when an attribute generally 
follows the predicate verb. 

4. When an adjective follows an infinitive or a participle, the noun 
or pronoun to which it relates, is sometimes before it, and sometimes 
after it, and often considerably remote ; as, "A real gentleman cannot 
but practice those virtues which, by an intimate knowledge of mankind, 
he has found to be useful to them." 

5. Adjectives preceded by the definite article, are often used, by 
ellipsis, as having the force of nouns. They designate those classes of 
objects which are characterized by the qualities they express ; and, iu 
parsing, the noun may be supplied. They are most commonly of the 
plural number, and refer to persons, places, or things, understood ; as, 
" The careless [persons] and the imprudent, the giddy and the fickle, the 
ungrateful and the interested everywhere meet us." 

6. The adjective is generally placed immediately before its noun, 
but in the following instances it is placed after the noun to which it 
relates : — 

1. When other words depend on the adjective ; as, "A mind con- 
scious of right.'''' — " A wall three feet thick.'''' 

2. When the quality results from the action of a verb ; as, " Virtu© 
renders life happy.'''' (Indirect attribute.) 

8. When the adjective would thus be more clearly distinctive ; as, 
" Goodness infinite.'''' — " Wisdom unsearchable." 

4. When a verb comes between the adjective and the noun ; as, 
" Truth stands independent of all external things." (Direct attri. 
bute.) 

7. In some cases, the adjective may either precede or follow the noun : — 
1. In poetry ; as, 

' ' Wilt thou to the isles 
Atlantic, to the rich Hesperian clime, 
Fly in the train of Autumn ? " — Akenside. 



138 SYNTAX. 

2. In some technical expressions; as, " A notary public," or, "A 
public notary." 

3. When an adverb precedes the adjective ; as, "A Being infinitely 
wise," or, " An infinitely wise Being." 

4. When several adjectives belong to the same noun ; as, " A woman, 
modest, sensible, and virtuous," or, " A modest, sensible, and 
virtuous woman. 

8. An emphatic adjective may be placed first in the sentence, though 
it belong after the verb ; as, ' ' Weighty is the anger of the righteous. " — 
Bible. 

9. By an ellipsis of 'the noun, an adjective with a preposition before 
it, is sometimes equivalent to an adverb ; as, "In particular ; " that is, 
in a %iartieular manner ; equivalent to "particularly." In parsing, 
supply the ellipsis. [See Obs. 1, under Rule XX.] 

Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 

I. — Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must agree 
with their nouns in number ; as, That sort, those sorts. 

II. — When the adjective is necessarily plural, or necessarily 
singular, the noun should be made so too ; as, " Twenty 
pounds" — not, "Twenty pound" — "One session," — not, 
" One sessions." 

Obs. 1. — In some peculiar phrases, this rule appears to be disregarded; 
as, " Two hundred pennyworth of bread is not sufficient." — John vi., 7. 
" Twenty sail of vessels."—" A hundred head of cattle." 

Obs. 2. — To denote a collective number, a singular adjective may pre- 
cede a plural one; as, " One hundred men." — " Every six weeks." — 
" One seven times." — Dan. hi., 19. 

Obs. 3. — To denote plurality, the adjective many may, in like man- 
ner, precede an or a with a singular noun ; as, 

" Full many a flower is bom to blush unseen, 
And waste Us sweetness on the desert air." — Gray. 

ILL — The reciprocal expression, one an other, should not be 
applied to two objects, nor each other, or one the other, to more 
than two. 

Obs. — Reciprocity between two is some act or relation of each or one 
to the other, an object definite, and not of one to an other, which is in- 
definite ; but reciprocity among three or more is of one, each, or every 
one, not to one other solely, or the other definitely, but to others, a plu- 
rality, or to an other, taken indefinitely and implying this plurality. 



RELATION. 139 

IV. — The comparative degree can only be used in reference 
to two objects, or classes of objects ; the superlative compares 
one or more things with all others of the same class, whether 
few or many : as, " Edward is toller than James ; he is the 
largest of my scholars." 

V. — "When the comparative degree is employed, the latter 
term of comparison should never include the former ; as, 
"Iron is more useful than all the metals" It should be, "than 
all the other metals." 

VI. — When the superlative degree is employed, the latter 
term of conrparison should never exclude the former ; as, "A 
fondness for show is, of all other follies, the most vain." The 
word other should be expunged. 

VII. — Comparative terminations, and adverbs of degree, 
should not be applied to adjectives that are not susceptible of 
comparison ; and all double comparatives and double superla- 
tives should be avoided ; as, " So universal a complaint : " say 
" So general.''' — " Some less nobler plunder : " say, " less noble.' 
— " The most straitest sect : " expunge most. 

Vin. — When adjectives are connected by and, or, or nor, 
the shortest and simplest should in general be placed first ; 
as, "He is older and more respectable than his brother." 

IX. — An adjective and its noun may be taken as a com- 
pound term, to which other adjectives may be prefixed. The 
most distinguishing quality should be expressed next to the 
noun ; as, "A fine young man," — not, " A young fine man." 

X. — In prose, the use of adjectives for adverbs is improper ; 
as, " He writes elegant ; " — say, "elegantly." 

Obs. 1. — In poetry, an adjective relating to the noun or pronoun, is 
sometimes elegantly used instead of an adverb qualifying the verb or 
participle ; as, 

" To thee I bend the knee ; to thee my thoughts 
Continual climb. " — Thomson. 

Obs. 2. — In order to determine, in difficult cases, whether an adjec- 
tive or an adverb is required, the learner should carefully attend to the 
definitions of these parts of speech, and consider whether, in the case 
in question, quality or manner is to be expressed : if the former, an 



140 SYNTAX. 

adjective is proper : if the latter, an adverb. The following examples 
will illustrate this point: "She looks cold; — she looks coldly on him." 
— "I sat silent ; — I sat silently musing." — " Stand firm; — maintain youi 
cause firmly." 

XI. — The pronoun them should never be used as an adjec- 
tive in lieu of those : say, " I bought those books/' — not, " them 
books." This is a vulgar error. 

XII. — When the pronominal adjectives, this and that, or 
these and those, are contrasted ; this or these should represent 
the latter of the antecedent terms, and that or those, the 
former ; as, 

"And, reason raise o'er instinct as you can, 

In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man." — Pope. 
1 ' Farewell my friends ! farewell my foes ! 
My peace with these, my love with those ! " — Burns. 

XTTT. — The pronominal adjectives each, one, either, and 
neither, are always in the third person singular ; and, when 
they are the leading words in their clauses, they require 
verbs and pronouns, to agree with them accordingly ; as, 
"Each of you is entitled to his share." — "Let no one deceive 
himself." 

"XIV. — The pronominal adjectives either and neither relate 
to two things only ; when more are referred to, any and none 
should be used in stead of them : as, "Any of the three ;" — 
not, " Either of the three." — " None of the four ; " — not, 
"Neither of the four." 

XV. — Participial adjectives retain the termination, but not 
the government, of participles ; when, therefore, they are fol- 
lowed by the objective case, a preposition must be inserted 
to govern it ; as, " The man who is most sparing of his words, 
is generally most deserving of attention. " 

False Syntax. 

Example. — Those sort of people you will find to be trouble- 
some. 

Formulb.— Not proper, because the adjective those is in the plural number, and does 
not agree with its noun sort, which is singular. But, according to Note I. under Rule 
II., ''Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must agree with their nouns in number." 
Therefore, those should be that ; thus, Thai sort of people you will find to b,- troublesome. 



EELATIOK. 141 

I. 

Things of these sort are easily understood. 
Who broke that tongs ? 
Where did I drop this scissors ? 
Bring out that oats. 
Extinguish that embers. 
I disregard this niinutias. 
Those kind of injuries we need not fear. 
What was the height of those gallows which Hainan 
erected ? 

II. 

We rode about ten mile an hour. 

'Tis for a thousand pound. — Cowper. 

How deep is the water ? About six fathom. 

The lot is twenty-five foot wide. 

I have bought eight load of wood. 

m.-iv. 

Two negatives in English destroy one another. 
That the heathens tolerated each other, is allowed. 
David and Jonathan loved one an other tenderly. 
Words are derived from each other in various ways. 
Teachers like to see their pupils polite to each other. 
The Graces always hold the one the other by the hand. 
He chose the latter of these three. 
Trisyllables are often accented on the former syllable. 
Which are the two more remarkable isthmuses in the world ? 

V.-VI. 

The Scriptures are more valuable than any writings. 

The Kussian empire is more extensive than any government 
in the world. 

Israel loved Joseph more than all his children, because he 
was the son of his old age. — Gen. xxxvii., 3. 

Of all other ill habits idleness is the most incorrigible. 

Eve was the fairest of all her daughters. 

Hope is the most constant of all the other passions. 



142 SYNTAX. 

vn. 

That opinion is too universal to be easily corrected. 
Virtue confers the supremest dignity upon man. 
How much more are ye better than the fowls ! — Luke xii. 
Do not thou hasten above the Most Highest. 
This was the most unkindest cut of all. — Shakspeare. 
The w r aters are more sooner and harder frozen. 
A more healthier place cannot be found. 
The best and the most wisest men often meet with dis- 
couragements. 

vm. 

He showed us a more agreeable and easier way. 
This was the most convincing and plainest argument. 
Some of the most moderate and wisest of the senators. 
This is an honorable and ancient fraternity. 
There vice shall meet an irrevocable and fatal doom. 

IX. 

He is a young industrious man. 

She has a new elegant house. 

The two first classes have read. 

The oldest two sons have removed to the westward. 

England had not seen such an other king. — Goldsmith, 

X. 

She reads well and writes neat. 

He was extreme prodigal. 

They went, conformable to their engagement. 

He speaks very fluent, and reasons justly. 

The deepest streams run the most silent. 

These appear to be finished the neatest. 

He was scarce gone when you arrived. 

I am exceeding sorry to hear of your misfortunes. 

The work was uncommon well executed. 

This is not such a large cargo as the last. 

Thou knowst what a good horse mine is. 

I cannot think so mean of him. 

He acted much wiser than the others. 



EELATIOIS T . 143 

XI. 

I bought them books at a very low price. 

Go arid tell them boys to be still. 

I have several copies : you are welcome to them two. 

Which of them three men is the most useful ? 

xn. 

Hope is as strong an incentive to action, as fear : this is 
the anticipation of good, that of evil. 

The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy ; but 
we should not therefore account those happy, and these 
miserable. 

Memory and forecast just returns engage, 
This pointing back to youth, that on to age. 

xm. 

Let each of them be heard in their turn. 
On the Lord's day every one of us Christians keep the 
Sabbath. 

Are either of these men known ? 

No : neither of them have any connections here. 

XIV. 

Did either of the company stop to assist you ? 
Here are six ; but neither of them will answer. 

XV. 

Some crimes are thought deserving death. 

Eudeness of speech is very unbecoming a gentleman. 

To eat with unwashen hands, was disgusting a Jew. 
Leave then thy joys, unsuiting such an age, 
To a fresh comer, and resign the stage. — Dryden. 

Promiscuous. 

William is brighter than any of the pupils. 
Either of those four boys is trustworthy. 
These kind of bears are hard to tame. 
The house is about tweDtv foot wide. 



144 SYNTAX. 

These two sisters are very fond of one another. 
The latter of those three pictures is the prettier, but neither 
of them pleases me. 

Of all other ill habits that is the worst. 
Let the three first pupils in the class rise. 
Will you have a ripe luscious peach ? 
I cannot carry them books now. 
What a terrible bad cold you have ! 
Try to get well as quick as you can. 

Parsing. 

Parse all the adjectives in the following sentences. 

Example. — "This boy seems very diligent." 

This is a pronominal adjective, and relates to the noun boy, according to the rule— Ad- 
jectives relate to nouns or pronouns. 
Diligent is a common adjective, and relates to the noun boy, according to the rule, etc. 

I am glad you have become skillful. Strive to be honest and true. 
The door is made wide. To be good is better than to be learned. To 
wrong the poor is very wicked. A word to the wise is sufficient. This 
is true, but that is false. The careless are rarely successful. The house 
was a hundred feet high. Virtue alone will render you happy. A Being 
infinitely good cannot be the author of evil. In general, the rule is 
applicable. Noble was the act, and great was the reward. 



Rule III. — Adverbs. 

Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other 
adverbs ; as, " Conscience, very often disregarded, finally 
becomes wholly inert." 

Exceptions. 

1. The words yes and yea, and no and nay, usually called adverbs, 
are always independent, being the answers to questions, and equivalent 
to entire propositions. 

2. The word amen, which is commonly called an adverb, is often used 
independently at the beginning or end of a declaration or prayer -, and 
is itself a prayer, meaning, so let it be. 



KELATION. 145 

Observations. 

1. Many words usually employed as adverbs are often used as nouns : 
as, " The Son of God was not yea and nay, but in him was yea." — Bible. 
" For a great while to come." — Id. " On this perhaps, this peradventure 
infamous for lies. " — Young. ' ' From the extremist upward of thine 
head." — Shale. "Prate of my whereabout." — Id. "An eternal now 
does always last." — Cowley. "Discourse requires an animated no." — 
Cowper. 

2. Adverbs sometimes relate to verbs understood; "The former has 
written correctly; but the latter, elegantly." "And, [I say~\ truly, if 
they had been mindful of that country from whence they came out, they 
might have had opportunity to have returned." — Heb. xi., 15. • 

3. To abbreviate expressions, and give them vivacity, verbs of self- 
motion (as go, come, rise, get, etc.) are sometimes suppressed, being sug- 
gested to the mind by an emphatic adverb ; as, 

" I'll hence to London on a serious matter." — Shakspeare. 

" I'll in. I'll in. Follow your friend's counsel. I'll in. — Id. 

1 ' Away old man ; give me thy hand ; away. " — Id. 

4. An adverb is often used to modify a phrase used as an adjective or 
adverb; as, "He is greatly in fault." — "He swam nearly across the 
stream." 

5. The word even is sometimes an adverb ; but it may be placed before 
any word to give it emphasis ; as, " Even I was condemned." 

6. Conjunctive adverbs seem to relate to two verbs at the same time, 
and thus connect the two clauses ; as, ' ' And the rest will I set in order 
when I come." — 1 Cor. xi. In this case the adverbial clause relates to set 
and the adverb when, to the verb come, in its own clause. 

7. No is sometimes an adverb of degree ; and as such it has this pecu- 
liarity, that it can relate only to comparatives; as, u No more." — u No 
better." — " No greater." — " No sooner." When this word is prefixed to 
a noun, it is clearly an adjective, corresponding to the Latin nullus ; as, 
"No clouds, no vapors intervene." — Dyer. 

8. By the customary (but faulty) omission of the negative before but, 
that conjunction has acquired the adverbial sense of only; and it ma^y, 
when used with that signification, be called an adverb. Thus, the text, 
"He hath not grieved me but in part," [2 Cor. ii., 5,] might drop the 
negative, and still convey the same meaning ; "He hath grieved me but 
in part." 

Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 

I. — Adverbs must be placed in that position which will ren- 
der the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable. 

7 



146 SYNTAX. 

Obs. — For the placing of adverbs, no definite general rule can be 
given. Those which relate to adjectives, immediately precede them ; and 
those which belong to compound verbs, are commonly placed after the 
first auxiliary. 

II. — Adverbs should not be used as adjectives ; nor should 
they be employed, when quality is to be expressed, and not 
manner; as, "The soonest time." — "Thine often infirmities. " 
— "It seems strangely." In the last case, the adverb strangely 
is used for the adjective attribute strange* 

m. — With a verb of motion, the adverbs hither, thither, and 
ivhither, are more proper than here, there, where ; but usage 
sometimes sanctions the latter. To the adverbs hence, thence, 
and whence the preposition from should not be prefixed. 

IV. — The adverb no should not be used with reference to a 
verb or a participle ; as, " Will you do it, or no f " No should 
be not. 

V. — A negation, in English, admits but one negative word ; 
as, I could not wait any longer," — not, " no longer." Double 
negatives are vulgar. 

Obs. 1. — The repetition of a negative word or clause, strengthens the 
negation ; as, " No, no, no." But two negatives in the same clause, de- 
stroy the negation, and render the meaning affirmative; as, "Nor did 
they not perceive their evil plight." — Milton. That is, they did per- 
ceive it. 

Obs. 2. — Ever and never are directly opposite in sense, and yet they are 
frequently confounded and misapplied even by respectable writers ; as, 
" Seldom, or never, can we expect," etc. —Blair's Lectures, p. 305. " Sel- 
dom, or ever, did any one rise," etc. — Ibid. , p. 272. Here never is right, 
and ever is wrong. But as the negative adverb applies only to time, 
ever is preferable to never, in sentences like the following: "Now let 
man reflect but never so little on himself." — Burlamaqui. "Which will 
not hearken to the voice of charmers, charming never so wisely." — 
Ps. lviii.j 5. For the phrase ever so (which ought perhaps to be written 
as one word) is a very common expression, denoting degree, however 
great or small ; as, " ever so little" — " eoerso wisely." And it .seems to 
be this, and not time, that is intended in the last two examples. 



EELATION. 147 

False Syntax. 

Example. — My cousin is soon expected to arrive. 

Formtji/e. — Not proper because the adverb S0071 is not in the proper place to express 
the meaning clearly. 

But, according to Note I. under Rule III., "Adverbs must be placed in that position 
which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable." The sentence will 
be improved by placing soon after arrive ; thus, My cousin is expected to arrive soon. 

I. 

The work will be never completed. 

We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. 

It is impossible continually to be at work. 

He impertinently behaved to his master. 

The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. 

Not only he found her busy, but pleased and happy even, 

The man only discharged his duty. 

n. 

Give him a soon and decisive answer. 
When a substantive is put absolutely. 
Such expressions sound harshly. 
Such events are of seldom occurrence. 
Velvet feels very smoothly. 
The wind blew keenly and coldly. 

m. 

From hence it appears that the statement is incorrect, 
From thence arose the misunderstanding. 
Do you know from whence it proceeds ? 

IV. 
Know now, whether this be thy son's coat or no. 
Whether he is in fault or no, I cannot tell. 
I will ascertain whether it is so or no. 

V. 
I will not by no means entertain a spy. 
Nobody never invented nor discovered nothing, in no way to 

be compared with this. 
I did all I could ; I cannot do no more. 
Neither he nor no one else can do that. 



148 SYNTAX. 

Promiscuous. 

Tell me whether this is true or no. 

Why do you not say nothing ? 

He only came here to make trouble. 

Nothing can justify ever an untruth. 

He was not able to pay the debt but in part. 

The messenger went direct to the place. 

From whence did he set out ? 

The two ladies were nearly dressed alike. 

He only read the b(5ok, not the notice of it. 

He read only the book ; he did not tear it. 

Parsing. 

Parse all the adverbs in the following sentences. 
Example. — " The work was done very skillfully." 

Very is an adverb of degree, and relates to the adverb skillfully, according to the rule 
— Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, etc. 

Skillfully is an adverb of manner, and relates to the verb was done, according to the 
rule, etc. 

Are you feeling well to-day ? Yes. Whither are you running so 
fast ? Truly, if they had reflected long enough, they would not have 
acted so rashly. Down with the law that hinds him thus. Never 
decide rashly. Obviously, he is greatly in fault. They started yester- 
day very early in the morning. I can go no farther. When I saw him, 
I went directly up to him. He has suffered only in a slight degree. 
John has read nearly through his book. Can you go no higher ? No. 



Rule IV.— Participles. 

Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are 
governed by prepositions ; as, " Elizabeth's tutor, at one 
time paying her a visit, found her e?nj?loyed in reading 
Plato." — Hume. 

Exceptions. 

1. A participle sometimes relates to a preceding phrase or sentence, of 
which it forms no part ; as, 

' But ever to do ill our sole delight, 
As being the contrary to his high will."-- Milton. 



EELATIOTT. 149 

2. With an infinitive denoting being or action in the abstract, a par- 
ticiple is sometimes also taken abstractly (that is, without reference to 
any particular noun, pronoun, or other subject); as, "To seem com- 
pelled is disagreeable." — "To keep always praying aloud is plainly 
impossible. " 

Observations. 

1. The use of the participle in ing as the subject or object of a verb, 
though sanctioned to some extent by writers of reputation, seems to be 
an anomaly which should be avoided when possible. Thus, instead of, 
" He abhorred being in debt," say, "He abhorred to be in debt." 

2. The word to which the participle relates is sometimes understood; 
as, " Granting this to be true, what is to be inferred from it." That 
is, " i", granting this to be true, ash what is to be inferred from it ? " — 
"The very chin was, [I say,] modestly speaking, as long as my whole 
face. " — Addison. 

3. An imperfect or preperfect participle, preceded by an article, an 
adjective, or a noun or pronoun of the possessive case, becomes a verbal 
i oun ; and, as such, it cannot govern an object after it. A word which 
may be the object of the participle in its proper construction, requires 
the preposition of, to connect it with the verbal noun; as, " The wor- 
shiping of idols, — Such worshiping of idols — or, Their worshiping of 
idols, was sinful." A participial phrase is, however, sometimes used, 
by good writers, to govern a noun or pronoun in the possessive case. 

4. We sometimes find a participle and its adjuncts, forming a parti- 
cipial phrase, used as the subject or the object of a verb ; as, "Exciting 
such distu.- jances is unlawful." Usually, the infinitive is to be pre- 
ferred ; as, "I intend to do it ; " which is better than "I intend doing it." 

5. When the use of the preposition produces ambiguity or harshness, 
the expression may be varied. Thus, the sentence, "He mentions 
Newton' s writing of a commentary," is both ambiguous and awkward. 
If the preposition be omitted, the word loriting will have a double con- 
struction, which is inadmissible. Some would say, "He mentions New- 
ton writing a commentary. " This is still worse ; because it makes the 
leading word in sense the adjunct in construction. The meaning may 
be correctly expressed thus : "He mentions that Newton icrote a com- 
mentary." " By his studying the Scriptures, he became wise." Here 
his serves only to render the sentence incorrect. 

6. We sometimes find a participle that takes the same case after as 
before it, converted into a verbal noun, and the latter word retained 
unchanged in connection with it ; as, "I have some recollection of his 
father's being a judge." — "To prevent its being a dry detail of terms/' 
In this case, the attribute is indefinite. 



150 SYNTAX. 

7. When the verbal noun is accompanied by adjuncts of the verb or 
participle, it makes an awkward construction, which it would be better 
to avoid ; as, " The hypocrite's hope is like the giving up of the ghost." 
— "For the more easily reading large numbers." Say, "For reading 
large numbers the more easily." 

8. After verbs signifying to persevere or to desist, the participle in ing, 
relating to the nominative, may be used in stead of the infinitive con- 
nected to the verb ; as, ' ' So when they continued asking him. "—John vili. 

Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 

I. — Active participles have the same government as the 
verbs from which they are derived ; the preposition of there- 
fore, should never be used after the participle, when the verb 
does not require it. Thus, in phrases like the following, of 
is improper: "Keeping of one day in seven," — "By preach- 
ing of repentance," — "They left beating o/Paul." 

II. — "When a transitive participle is converted into a noun, 
of must be inserted to govern the object following. 

HE. — A participle should not be used where the infinitive 
mood, a verbal noun, a common substantive, or a phrase 
equivalent, will better express the meaning. 

IV. — In the use of participles and of verbal nouns, the 
leading word in sense, should always be made the leading or 
governing word in the construction. 

V. — Participles, in general, however construed, should have 
a clear reference to the proper subject of the being, action, or 
passion. The following sentence is therefore faulty: "By 
giving way to sin, trouble is encountered." This suggests 
that trouble gives way to sin. It should be, "By giving way to 
sin, toe encounter trouble. 

VI. — The preterit of irregular verbs should not be used for 
the perfect participle ; as, "A certificate wrote on parchment" 
■ — for, "A certificate written on parchment." 

VH — Perfect participles being variously formed, care 
should be taken to express them agreeably to the best usage : 
thus, earnt, snatcht, checkt, snapt, mixt, tost, are erroneously 
written for earned, snatched, checked, snapped, mixed, tossed; 
and such forms as holden, proven, etc., are now superseded hy 
held, proved, etc. 



RELATION". 151 

False Syntax. 

Example. — In forming of his sentences lie was very exact. 

Forhule. — Not proper, because the preposition of is used after the participle forming, 
whose verb does not require it. But, according to Note I., under Rule IV., "Participles 
have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived ; the preposition of, 
therefore, should not be used after the participle, when the verb does not require it." 
Therefore, of should be omitted ; thus, In forming his sentences, he was very exact. 

I. 

By observing of truth, yon will command respect. 

I could not, for my heart, forbear pitying of him. 

I heard them discussing of this subject. 

By consulting of the best authors, he became learned. 

Here are rules, by observing of which, you may avoid error. 

n. 

Their consent was necessary for the raising any supplies. 
Thus the saving a great nation devolved on a husbandman. 
It is an overvaluing ourselves, to decide upon everything. 
The teacher does not allow any calling ill names. 
That burning the capitol was a wanton outrage. 
May nothing hinder our receiving so great a good. 
My admitting the fact will not affect the argument. 
Cain's killing his brother originated in envy. 

m. 

Cassar carried off the treasures which his opponent had neg- 
lected taking with him. — Goldsmith. 

It is dangerous playing with edge tools. 

I intend returning in a few days. 

Suffering needlessly is never a duty. 

Nor is it wise complaining. — Coivper. 

I well remember telling you so. 

Doing good is a Christian's vocation. — H. More. 

Piety is constantly endeavoring to live to God. It is earnestly 
desiring to do his will, and not our own. — Id. 



152 SYNTAX. 

IV. 

There is no harm in women knowing about these things. 
They did not give notice of the pupil leaving. 
The sun's darting his beams through my window awoke me. 
The maturity of the sago tree is known by the leaves being 
covered with a delicate white powder. 
V. 
Sailing up the river, the whole town may be seen. 
Being conscious of guilt, death becomes terrible. 
By yielding to temptation, our peace is sacrificed. 
In loving our enemies, no man's blood is shed. 
By teaching the young, they are prepared for usefulness. 

VI. 
A nail well drove will support a great weight. 
See here a hundred sentences stole from my work. 
I found the water entirely froze, and the pitcher broke. 
Being forsook by my friends, I had no other resource. 

VII. 

Till by barbarian deluges o'erflown. 

Like the luster of diamonds sat in gold. 

A beam ethereal, sullied and absorpt. 

With powerless wings around them wrapt. 

Error learnt from preaching, is held as sacred truth. 

Promiscuous. 

He could not have wrote such a letter. 

By studying faithfully, knowledge is acquired. 

We saw the lady while crossing the street. 

The learning anything requires application. 

I do not remember speaking of the affair. 

By the exercising our faculties they are improved. 

The garment was without seam, being wove in one piece. 

What is the cause of that pupil being so deficient ? 

Striving to excel is always commendable. 

Breaking windows is the sport of mischievous boys. 

He disliked being under an obligation. 

His being considered a scholar did not make him one. 



RELATION. 153 

Parsing. 

Parse all the participles in the following sentences. 

Example. — " Thus repulsed, he lost all hope of attaining his object." 

Repulsed is a perfect passive participle, and relates to he, according to the rule,— Par- 
ticiples relate to nouns or pronouns, etc. 

Attaining is an imperfect active participle, and is governed by the preposition of, ac- 
cording to the rule, etc. 

Knowledge, combined with true culture, makes a person esteemed 
and admired. Admitting the truth of this, what does it prove ? The 
pupils continued whispering, after being reproved. Walking rapidly is 
good exercise. To keep on arguing against prejudice is a loss of time. 
Washington, having been appointed commander-in-chief, proceeded to 
Cambridge. Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. The ship having been 
wrecked, the letter did not reach him. He was too fond of being flat- 
tered. Despised and shunned by all, he went sorrowing to his grave. 



Rule V. — Prepositions. 

Prepositions show the relation of things ; as, " He came 
from Eome to Paris." 

Exceptions. 

1. The preposition to, before an abstract infinitive, and at the head of 
a phrase which is made the subject of a verb, has no proper antecedent 
term of relation ; as, " To learn to die is the great business of life." 

2. The preposition for, when it introduces its object before an infini- 
tive, and the whole phrase is made the subject of a verb, has properly no 
antecedent term of relation ; as, ' ' For us to learn to die is the great 
business of life." 

Observations. 

1. The preposition always introduces a phrase ; and the relation which 
it expresses is that existing between the object of the preposition and 
the word to which the phrase relates. The latter is the antecedent term; 
and the former, the subsequent term of relation. When the phrase is 
independent, there is no antecedent term, unless one be understood ; as, 
''To confess the truth, I was to blame." 

2. When a preposition begins or ends a sentence or clause, the terms 
of relation are transposed ; as, " To a studious man, action is a relief." — 
" Science they do not pretend to." 

3. Both the terms of relation are usually expressed, though either of 
them may be understood ; as, 1. The former — " All shall know me [reck- 

7* 



154 SYNTAX. 

oning] from the least to the greatest."-- Heb. viii. [I say] "ma word, 
it would entirely defeat the purpose."— Blair. 2. The latter — "Opin- 
ions and ceremonies [which] they would die for." — Locke. " In [those] 
who ohtain defence, or who defend." — Pope. 

4. Prepositions are not to be supposed to have no antecedent term, 
merely because they stand at the head of a sentence which is made the 
subject of a verb ; for the sentence itself often contains that term, as in 
the following example : ' ' In what way mind acts upon matter, is un- 
known." Here in shows the relation between acts and way ; the sen- 
tence being equivalent to, " The way in which mind acts upon matter is 
unknown." 

5. In the familiar style, a preposition governing a relative or an inter- 
rogative pronoun, is often separated from its object, and connected with 
the other term of relation ; as, ' ' Whom did he speak to ? " But it is 
more dignified, and in general more graceful, to place the preposition 
before the pronoun ; as, ' ' To whom did he speak ? " 

6. Two prepositions sometimes come together ; as, ' ' Lambeth is over 
against Westminster Abbey." 

" And from before the lustre of her face." — Thomson. 
"Blows mildew from between his shrivel'd lips." — Cowper. 

7. Two separate prepositions have sometimes a joint reference to the 
same noun; as, "He boasted of, and contended for, the privilege." 
This construction is formal, and scarcely allowable, except in the law 
style. It is better to say, " He boasted of the privilege, and contended 
for it." 

8. The preposition into expresses a relation produced by motion or 
change ; and in, the same relation, without reference to motion : hence 
"to walk into the garden," and, "to walk in the garden," are very 
different. 

9. Beticeen or betwixt is used in reference to two things or parties ; 
among or amidst, in reference to a greater number, or to something by 
which another may be surrounded ; as, 

"Thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear." — Byron. 
" The host between the mountain and the shore." — Id. 
" To meditate amongst decay, and stand 
A ruin amidst ruins." — Id. 



Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 

I. — Prepositions must be chosen and employed agreeably 
to the usage and idiom of the language, so as rightly to ex- 
press the relations intended. 



KELATICXN". 155 

IE. — An ellipsis or omission of prepositions is inelegant, ex- 
cept in those phrases in which long and general use has sanc- 
tioned it. In the following sentence, of is needed. 

" I will not natter you, 

That all I see in you is worthy love." — Shah 

False Syntax. 

Example. — Her sobriety is no derogation to her under- 
standing. 

FoKMtriiE. — Not proper, because the relation between derogation and tinder standing 
is not correctly expressed by the preposition to. But, according to Note I. under Rule V., 
"Prepositions must be chosen and employed agreeably to the usage and idiom of the 
language, so as rightly to express the relations intended." This relation would be better 
expressed by/rom; thus, Her sobriety is no derogation from her understanding. 

I. 

She finds a difficulty of fixing her mind. 
This affair did not fall into his cognizance. 
He was accused for betraying his trust. 
There was no water, and he died for thirst. 
I have no occasion of his services. 
You may safely confide on him. 
- I entertain no prejudice to him. 
You may rely in what I tell you. 
Virtue and vice differ widely with each other. 
This remark is founded in truth. 
After many toils, we arrived to our journey's end. 
I will tell you a story very different to that. 
Their conduct is agreeable with their profession. 
Excessive pleasures pass from satiety in disgust. 
I turned into disgust from the spectacle. 
They are gone in the meadow. 
Let this be divided between the three. ( Obs. 9. ) 
The shells were broken in pieces. 
The deception has passed among every one. 
They never quarrel among each other. 
Amidst every difficulty, he persevered. 
Let us go above stairs. 



156 SYNTAX. 

I was at London when this happened. 
We were detained to home, and disappointed in our walk. 
This originated from mistake. 

I am disappointed of the work ; it is very inferior from what I 
expected. 

n. 

Be worthy me, as I am worthy you. — Dryden. 
They cannot but be unworthy the care of others. 
. Thou shalt have no portion on this side the river. 
Sestos and Abydos were exactly opposite each other. 
Ovid was banished Eome by his patron Augustus. 

Promiscuous. 

He divided his property between his four sons. (Obs. 9.) 
Whom was this message meant for? (Obs. 5.) 
He plunged into, and swam across, the river. (Obs. 7.) 
That remark is not worthy your notice. 
He put a basket of apples in his wagon. (Obs. 8.) 
The pupil was admonished for his many faults. 
The Indian differs with the Caucasian in color. 
He is unacquainted with, and hence cannot speak upon, the 
subject. 

Parsing. 

Parse all the -prepositions in the following sentences. 
Example. — "Be on thy guard against flattery." 

On is a preposition, and shows the relation between be and guard, according to the 
rule,— Prepositions show the relations of things. 

Against is a preposition, and shows the relation between guard and flattery \ according 
to the rule, etc. 

War is the law of violence ; peace, the law of love. At the bottom of 
the garden, ran a little rivulet. Overwhelmed with anguish, he hast- 
ened to the palace of his sovereign. For an old man to be reduced to 
poverty, is a great affliction. My friend was absent a whole year. Come 
out from among those impious men. They could not give him any con- 
solation in his distress. It was, in truth, a dreadful calamity. How 
like a fawning hypocrite he looks ! 



AGREEMENT. 157 

II AGREEMENT. 

Rule VI.— Nominatives. 

A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite 
verb, must be in the nominative case ; as, 
"I know thou sayst it : says thy life the same ? " — Young. 

Observations. 

1. The subject, ©r nominative, is generally placed before the verb ; as, 
"Peace dawned upon his mind." — " What is written in the law ? " But 
in the following nine cases, the subject is usually placed after the verb, 
or after the first auxiliary : — 

1. When a question is asked without an interrogative pronoun in 
the nominative case ; as, " Shall mortals be implacable ? " — " What 
art thou doing f " 

2. When the verb is in the imperative mood ; as, "Go thou." 

3. When an earnest wish or other strong feeling is expressed ; as, 
"May she be happy ! " — " How were ice struck ! " — Young. 

4. When a supposition is made without a conjunction ; as, ' ' Were 
it true, it would not injure us." 

5. When neither or nor, signifying and not, precedes the verb ; 
as, ' ' This was his fear ; nor teas his apprehension groundless. " 

6. When, for the sake of emphasis, some word or words are 
placed before the verb, which more naturally come after it ; as, 
"Here am I." — " Narrow is the icay. " — "Silver and gold have I 
none, but such as I have, give J thee." 

7. When the verb has no regimen, and is itself emphatic ; as, 
"Echo the mountains round." — Thomson. 

8. When the verbs say, think, reply, and the like, introduce the 
parts of a dialogue ; as, "'Son of affliction,' said Omar, 'who art 
thou ? ' ' My name,' replied the stranger, 'is Hassan.' " —Johnson. 

9. When the adverb there precedes the verb ; as, "There lived a 
man.'''' — "In all worldly joys, there is a secret wound.'''' 

2. A noun or pronoun used, in a dependent clause, as the subject of 
a verb in the infinitive mood, must be in the objective case ; as, "She 
desired Mm to leave the room." Here, him to leave the room is equiva- 
lent to, that he would leave the room ; — an object clause connected to 
the principal clause by the conjunction that. 

3. The subject of the infinitive is sometimes governed by a preposi- 
tion ; as, " For & prince to be reduced by villainy to my distressful cii" 
eumstances is calamity enough." 



158 SYNTAX. 

False Syntax. 

Example. — Him that is studious will improve. 

Fobmule.— Not proper, because the objective pronoun him is made the subject of the 
verb will improve. But, according to Rule VI., "A noun or a pronoun which is the 
subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Therefore, him should be he; 
thus, He that is studious will improve. 

Them that seek wisdom, will be wise. 

She and me are of the same age. 

You are two or three years older than us. 

Are not John and thee cousins ? 

Thee must have been idle. 

I can write as handsomely as thee. 

There are but few better pupils than him. 

Whom do you think was there ? 

Who broke this slate ? Me. 

Them that honor me, I will honor ; and them that despise 

me, shall be lightly esteemed. 
He whom in that instance was deceived, is a man of sound 

judgment. 
You know as well as me what was done. 

Parsing. 

After correcting the abode, parse every noun and pronoun in each of 
the sentences, in the manner indicated in previous examples. 



Rule VII.— Apposition. 

A noun or a personal pronoun used to explain a preced- 
ing noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same 
case . at>, 

" But he, our gracious Master, kind as just, 
Knowing our frame, remembers we are dust." — Barbauld. 

Observations. 

1. Apposition is the use of additional words or appellations to exjrtain 
a preceding noun or pronoun. Tlie explanatory term, or expression, 
must have the same relation to the other wurds of the sentence as the 



AGREEMENT. 159 

term explained. Thus, in the sentence, "It is good for us to he here," 
the phrase to be here is in apposition with the suhject it; the meaning 
being, "It, to be here, is good for us." Hence, the phrase is, like it, 
the subject of the verb is. 

2. The explanatory word is sometimes placed first, especially among 
the poete ; as, 

" From bright'ning fields of ether fair disclos'd 
Child of the sun, refulgent Summer comes." — Thomson. 

3. The pronouns of the first and second persons are often prefixed to 
nouns, merely to distinguish their person ; as, " / John saw thtse 
things." — " This is the stone which was set at nought of you builders." — 
Bible. " His praise, ye b rooks, attune." — Thomson. 

4. "When two or more nouns of the possessive case are put in apposi- 
tion, the possessive termination added to one denotes the case of both 
or all ; as, " His brother Philip's wife." — " John the Baptist's head." — 
" At my friend Johnson's, the bookseller." By a repetition of the pos- 
sessive sign, a distinct governing noun is implied, and the apposition is 
destroyed. 

5. In like manner, a noun without the possessive sign is sometimes 
put in apposition with a pronoun of the possessive case; as, "As an 
author, his ' Adventurer ' is his capital work." — Murray. 

" Thus shall mankind his guardian care engage, 
The promised father of the future age." — Pope. 

6. When a noun or a pronoun is repeated, for the sake of emphasis, tho 
word which is repeated may properly be said to be in apposition with 
that which is first introduced ; as, " They have forsaken me, the Foun- 
tain of living waters, and hewed them out cisterns, broken cisterns, that 
can hold no water." — Jer. ii., 13. 

7. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence; as, "He 
permitted me to consult his library — a kindness which I shall not forget." 
— W. Allen. 

8. A distributive term in the singular number, is frequently construed 
in apposition with a comprehensive plural ; as, " They reap vanity, 
every one with his neighbor." — Bible. " Go ye every man unto his city." 
— Ibid. And sometimes a plural icord is emphatically put after a series 
of particulars comprehended under it ; as, " Ambition, interest, honor, 
a^ concurred. " — Murray. "Royalists, republicans, churchmen, sec- 
taries, courtiers, patriots, all parties, concurred in the illusion. " — Hume. 

9. To express a reciprocal action or relation, the pronominal adjectives 
each other and one an other are employed ; as, " They love each other." 

—"They love one an other." The words, separately considered, are 



160 SYNTAX. 

singular ; but, taken together, they imply plurality ; and they can be 
properly construed only after plurals, or singulars taken conjointly. 
Each other is usually applied to two objects ; and one an other, to more 
than two. The terms, though reciprocal, and closely united, are never 
in the same construction. If such expressions be analyzed, each and one 
will generally appear to be in the nominative case, and other in the ob- 
jective ; as, "They love each other ; i.e., each loves the other. Each is 
properly in apposition with they, and other is governed by the verb. 
The terms, however, admit of other constructions ; as, " Be ye helpers 
one of an other.'" — Bible. Here one is in apposition with ye, and other 
is governed by of. "Ye are one an other's joy." — lb. Here one is in 
apposition with ye, and other's is in the possessive case, being governed 
by joy. " Love will make you one an other's joy." Here one is in the 
objective case, being in apposition with you, and other's is governed as 
before. The Latin terms alius alium, alii alios, etc., sufficiently confirm 
this doctrine. 

10. The common and the proper name of an object are often associated, 
and put in apposition ; as, The river Thames, — The ship Albion, — The 
poet Cowper, — Lake Erie, — Cape May, — Mount Atlas. But the proper 
name of a place, when accompanied by the common name, is generally 
put in the objective case, and preceded by of; as, The city of New York, 
— The land of Canaan. 

11. The several proper names which distinguish an individual, are 
always in apposition, and should be taken together in parsing ; as, Wil- 
liam Pitt. — Marcus Tullius Cicero. 

False Syntax. 

Example. — I have received a letter from my cousin, she 
that was here last week. 

Foemule.— Not proper, because the nominative pronoun she is used to explain the 
objective noun cousin. But, according to Rule VII., '* A noun or a personal pronoun used 
to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case." There- 
fore, she should be her .; thus, I hare received a letter from my cousin, her that was here 
last week. 

The book is a present from my brother Bichard, he that keeps 

the bookstore. 
I am going to see my friends in the country, they that we met 

at the ferry. 
This dress was made by Catharine, the milliner, she that we 

saw at work. 



AGREEMENT. 161 

Dennis, the gardener, him that gave me the tulips, has prom- 
ised me a peony. 

Resolve me, why the cottager and king, 
Him whom sea-sever'd realms obey, and him 
Who steals his whole dominion from the waste, 
Repelling winter blasts with mud and straw, 
Disquieted alike, draw sigh for sigh. 

Parsing. 

Parse all the nouns and pronouns in apposition in the above sentences. 



Rule VIII.— Verb and Subject. 

A finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, 
in person and number: as, "The bird flies ; "The birds 

ft/- n 

Observations. 

1. Verbs in the imperative mood commonly agree with the pronoun 
thou, ye, or you, understood; as, "Do [thou\ as thou list." — Shak. 
" Trust God and be doing, and leave the rest with him." 

2. When a verb not finite, that is, in the infinitive mood, has a sub- 
ject, the latter must be in the objective case ; but the infinitive having 
no inflections, there is no agreement. (See Obs. 2, under Rule VI.) 

Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 

I. — The adjuncts of the nominative do not control its agree- 
ment with the verb ; as, " Six months' interest was due." 
"The propriety of these rules is evident." 

II. — The infinitive mood, a phrase, or a sentence, is some- 
times the subject to a verb : a subject of this kind, however 
composed, if it is taken as one whole, requires a verb in the 
third person singular ; as, "To lie is base." — " To see the sun 
is pleasant." — "That you have violated the law, is evident." 

HE. — When, by transposition, the subject is placed after a 
neuter or a passive verb, care should be taken to make the 
verb agree with the subject, and not with the attribute ; "His 
pavilion were dark ivaters and thick clouds" — "The wages of 
sin is death." — " Who art thou ? " 
11 



162 SYNTAX. 

IV. — That form of the verb should be used which is best 
suited to the style employed; as, "The clock has stricken." 
Not hath stricken, except in the poetical or solemn style. 

V. — In selecting the proper tense, the order and fitness of 
time should be carefully observed. Thus : instead of, "I 
have seen him last week," say, "I saw him last iveek ;" instead 
of, "I saiv him this week," say, "I have seen him this week ;" 
and instead of, "I hoped you would have come" say, "I hoped 
you would come." 

VI. — Propositions that are at all times equally true or false, 
should be expressed in the present tense; as, "He seemed 
hardly to know that two and two make four," — not made. 

VH. — Every finite verb not in the imperative mood, should 
have a separate nominative expressed; as, "I came, I saw, I 
conquered ; " except when the verb is repeated for the sake of 
emphasis, or connected to another in the same construction ; 
as, "They bud, blow, wither, fall, and die." — Watts. 

False Syntax, 

Example. — You was kindly received. 

Fobmule. — Not proper, because the passive verb teas received is of the singular num- 
ber, and does not agree with its nominative you, which is of the second person, plural. 
But, according to Rule VIII., " A finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, 
in person and number." Therefore, was received should be were received ; thus, You 
were kindly received. 

We was disappointed. 
She dare not oppose it. 
His pulse are too quick. 
Circumstances alters cases. 
He need not trouble himself. 
Twenty-four pence is two shillings. 
On one side was beautiful meadows. 
He may pursue what studies he please. 
What have become of our cousins ? 
There was more impostors than one. 
What says his friends on this subject ? 
Thou knows the urgency of the case. 



AGREEMENT. 163 

What avails good sentiments with a bad life ? 

Has those books been sent to the school ? 

There is many occasions for the exercise of patience. 

What sounds have each of the vowels ? 

There were a great number of spectators. 

There are an abundance of treatises on this easy science. 

In this affair perseverance with dexterity were requisite. 

I. 

The derivation of these words are uncertain. 

Four years' interest were demanded. 

One added to nineteen make twenty. 

The increase of orphans render the addition necessary. 

The road to virtue and happiness, are open to all. 

The ship, with all her crew, were lost. 

A round of vain and foolish pursuits, delight some folks. 

n. 

To obtain the praise of men were their only object. 

To steal and then deny it are a double sin. 

To copy and claim the writings of others, are plagiarism. 

To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are required of all 

men. 
That it is our duty to promote peace and harmony among 

men, admit of no dispute. 

m. 

The reproofs of instruction is the way of life. 
A diphthong are two vowels joined in one syllable. 
So great an affliction to him was his wicked sons. 
What is the latitude and longitude of that island ? 
He churlishly said to me, " Who is you ? " 

IV. 

That boy writeth very elegantly. 

Doth not your cousin intend to visit you ? 

The Lord has prepared his throne in the heavens. 

Dost thou think it will rain to-day ? 



164 SYNTAX. 

Praise waits for thee, God, in Sion. 

My brother hath torn my book. 

Thou stoodest in my way, and hinderedst me. 

So then it is not of him that wills, nor of him that runs, but 

of God that shows mercy. 
V. 
The work has been finished last week. 
He was out of employment this fortnight. 
This mode of expression has been formerly in use. 
I should be much obliged to him if he will attend to it. 
I will pay the vows which my lips have uttered when I was hi 

trouble. 
I thought, by the accent, that he had been speaking to his 

child. 
And he that was dead sat up and began to speak. 
Thou hast borne, and hast patience, and for my name's sake 

hast labored, and hast not fainted. — Rev. ii., 3. 
Ye will not come unto me that ye might have life. 
At the end of this quarter, I shall be at school two years. 
We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. 
We expected that he would have arrived last night. 
Our friends intended to have met us. 
We hoped to have seen you. 
He would not have been allowed to have entered. 

YL 
The doctor affirmed that fever always produced thirst. 
The ancients asserted that virtue was its own reward. 
Columbus knew that the earth was round. 

VH. 
Am sorry to hear of thy loss, but hope it may be retrieved. 
The physician speaks favorably of the case ; is inclined to 

think the patient will get well. 
Should be happy to see you soon. 

On further information, find my loss to be inconsiderable. 
" Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, 
And never, never be to Heaven resigned ? " — Pope. 



AGREEMENT. 165 

Promiscuous. 

Some people is always busy and yet does very little. 
Sufficient data was not given to solve the problem. 
A judicious selection of studies afford much aid. 
Then thou spoke in vision to thy Holy One. 
He dare not do as he threatens. 
The man don't know what he wants. 
Sobriety with humility lead to honor. 

New York, May 3d, 1882. 
Dear Sir, Have just received your kind favor of this morning, and can- 
not forbear to express my gratitude to you. On further informa- 
tion, find I have not lost so much as at first supposed ; and believe 
I shall still be able to meet all my engagements. Should, however, 
be happy to see you. Accept, dear sir, my most cordial thanks. 

C. D. 

Parsing, 

Parse the subjects and each of the predicate verbs in the folloicrng 
sentences. 

Example. — "I have said to corruption, Thou art my father." 

lis a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, common in gender, and 
in the nominative case, being the subject of the verb have said, according to the rule, 
— A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative 
case. 

Rave said is a verb, irregular in form, the principal parts being, say, said, saying, 
said ; it is active transitive in signification, its object being the clause, Thou art my 
father. It is found in the indicative mood and perfect tense, and agrees with its subject 
I in the first person, singular number ; according to the rule, A finite verb must agree 
with its subject or nominative, in person and number. 

Thou is a personal pronoun, of the second person, singular number, and neuter gender 
(referring to corruption), and in the nominative case, being the subject of the verb art ; 
according to the rule, etc. 

Art is an irregular neuter verb, the principal parts being be, toas, being, been ; it is 
found in the indicative mood and present tense, and agrees with its subject thou in the 
second person, singular number ; according to the rule, etc. 

Did he say I could go ? I wish that I were sure of his sincerity. Tell 
me how long you have been there. What hast thou done ? To speak 
well is a valuable accomplishment. That you have spoken truly is not 
doubted. Canst thou minister to a mind diseased ? Unseen behind 
them sank the sun. Never decide rashly, or you may repentbitterly. 
Pluck one thread, and the web ye mar. I shall have departed, ere you 
return. 



166 SYNTAX. 

Rule IX. — Collective Nominative. 

When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the 
idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it in the plural 
number ; but when it conveys the idea of unity, the verb 
must be singular; as, "M.j people do not consider." — "His 
army was defeated." — " His armies were defeated." 

Obs. — Whether the idea conveyed is that of plurality or unity, de- 
pends upon the meaning of the verb, that is, the nature of the assertion. 
If it refers to the individuals separately, plurality is conveyed, because 
there are more than one ; if to the whole collectively, unity is expressed, 
because there is but one body referred to. Thus, in the above examples, 
the people consider as individuals, not as a whole, to consider being an 
individual or personal act ; but, in the second example, the army as a 
whole was defeated, not the individuals composing it. 

False Syntax. 

Example. — The people rejoices in that which should cause 
sorrow. 

Fokmule.— Not proper, because the verb rejoices is of the .singular number, and does 
not correctly agree with its nominative people, which is a collective noun, conveying the 
idea of plurality. But, according to Rule IX., "When the nominative is a collective 
noun conveying the idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it in the plural number." 
Therefore, rejoices should be rejoice ; thus, The people rejoice in that which should 
cause sorrow. 

The nobility was assured that he would not interpose. 

Blessed is the people that know the joyful sound. 

The majority was disposed to adopt the measure. 

The committee has voted upon the report. 

The peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle class wears 

wooden shoes. 
The church have no power to inflict such punishments. 
The fleet were almost destroyed in the action. 
The regiment consist of a thousand men. 
The council have established several salutary regulations. 
No society are responsible for the conduct of its members. 
A large flock of birds were in sight. 
The public is informed that a meeting will be held. 
A group of children was growing up about him. 



AGKEEMENT. 167 

The jury have been formed, but has not agreed. 
The happy pair has received the congratulations of their 
friends. 

Parsing. 

Parse each collective noun and each verb in the preceding exercise. 



Rule X. — Two or More Nominatives. 

When a verb has two or more nominatives connected 
by and, it must agree with them in the plural number ; 
as, " Judges and senates have been bought for gold." 

Exceptions. 

1. When two or more nominatives connected by and, serve merely to 
describe one person or thing, or when they are taken collectively, they 
do not require a plural verb ; as, " This philosopher and poet was ban- 
ished from his country." — " Toll, tribute, and custom, was paid unto 
them."— Ezra iv., 20. 

' ' Whose icy current and compulsive course 
Ne'er feels retiring ebb, but keeps due on." — ShaJcspeare. 

2. When two nominatives connected by and are emphatically distin- 
guished, they belong to different propositions, and (if singular) do not 
require a plural verb; as, "Ambition, and not the safely of the state, 
was concerned. ' ' — Goldsmith. 

" Ay, and no too, was no good divinity." — ShaJcspeare. 
1 ' Love, and love only, is the loan for love. " — Young. 

3. When two or more nominatives connected by and are preceded by 
the adjective each, every, or no; they are taken separately, and do not 
require a plural verb; as, " When no part of their substance, and no 
one of their properties, is the same." — Butler. "Every limb and fea- 
ture appears with its respective grace." — Steele. 

4. When the verb separates its nominatives, it agrees with that whicl? 
precedes it, and is understood to the rest ; as, 

" Forth in the pleasing spring, 

Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness, and love." — Thomson. 

Observations. 

1. The conjunction is sometimes understood ; as, 

"Art, empire, earth itself, to change are doomed." — Beattie, 



168 SYNTAX. 

2. When the nominatives are of different persons, the verb agrees 
with the first person in preference to the second, and with the second 
in preference to the third ; for thou and / (or he, thou, and I) are equiv- 
alent to we ; and thou and he are equivalent to you ; as, ' ' Why speakest 
thou any more of thy matters ? I have said, thou and Ziba divide the 
land." — 2 Sam. xix. i. e., " divide ye the land. " 

Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 

I. — When two subjects or antecedents are connected, one 
of which is taken affirmatively, and the other negatively, they 
belong to different propositions ; and the verb or pronoun 
must agree with the affirmative subject, and be understood to 
the other ; as, " Diligent industry, and not mean savings, pro- 
duces honorable competence." 

II. — When two subjects or antecedents are connected b} 
as well as, but, or save, they belong to different propositions f 
and, (unless one of them is preceded by the adverb not,) the 
verb and pronoun must agree with the former and be under- 
stood to the latter ; as, " Veracity, as well as justice, is to be 
our rule of life." — Butler. " Nothing but wailings teas heard. 

HI. — When two or more subjects or antecedents are pre- 
ceded by the adjective each, every, or no, they are taken sepa- 
rately, and require a verb and pronoun in the singular 
number ; as, 

" And every sense, and every heart is joy." — Thomson. 
" Each beast, each insect, happy in its own." — Pope. 

TV. — Two or more distinct subject phrases connected by 
and, require a plural verb ; as, To be wise in our own eyes, to 
be wise in the opinion of the world, and to be wise in the sight 
of our Creator, are three things so very different, as rarely to 
coincide." — Blair. 

False Syntax. 

Example. — Industry and frugality leads to wealth. 

Foemule.— Not proper, because the verb leads is in the singular number, and does 
not correctly agree with its two nominatives, industry and frugality, which are connected 
by and, and taken conjointly. But, according to Rule X., '• When a verb has two or 
more nominatives connected by and. it must agree with them in the plural number." 
Therefore leads should be lead ; thus, Industry and frugality lead to wealth. 



AGREEMENT. 169 

Temperance and exercise preserves health. 

Time and tide waits for no man. 

My love and affection toward thee remains unaltered. 

"Wealth, honor, and happiness, forsakes the indolent. 

My flesh and my heart faileth. 

In all his works, there is sprightliness and vigor. 

Elizabeth's meekness and humility was extraordinary. 

In unity consists the security and welfare of every society. 

High pleasures and luxurious living begets satiety. 

Much does human pride and folly require correction. 

Our conversation and intercourse with the world is, in several 

respects, an education for vice. 
Occasional release from toil, and indulgence of ease, is what 

nature demands, and virtue allows. 

I. 

Wisdom, and not wealth, procure esteem. 

Prudence, and not pomp, are the basis of his fame. 

Not fear but labor have overcome him. 

The decency, and not the abstinence, make the differenca 

Not her beauty but her talents attracts attention. 

Her talents, not her beauty, attracts attention. 

Study, not vain pleasures, engage his mind. 

H. 

His constitution, as well as his fortune, require care. 
Their religion, as well as their manners, were ridiculed. 
Every one, but thou, hadst been legally discharged. 
The buyer, as well as the seller, are held liable. 
All songsters, save the hooting owl, was mute. 
None, but thou, O mighty prince ! canst avert the blow. 
Nothing, but frivolous amusements, please the indolent. 
Caesar, as well as Cicero, were admired for their eloquence. 

HI. 

Each day, and each hour, bring its portion of duty. 
Every house, and even every cottage, were plundered. 
Every thought, every word, and every action, are brought into 
judgment. 



170 SYNTAX. 

The time lias come, when no oppressor, and no unjust man, 
are able to be screened from punishment. 

No bandit fierce, no tyrant mad with pride, 
No cavern'd hermit, rest self-satisfied. 

IV. 

To profess and to possess is very different. 

To do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly has been en- 
joined upon all mankind. 

To cultivate the mind and to purify the heart was the object 
of her endeavors. 

Promiscuous. 

No wife, no mother, no child were there to soothe his dying- 
hours. 

Virtue, and virtue alone, are able to satisfy the heart. {Excep- 
tion 2.) 

There are beauty of thought and elegance of expression in all 
his poems. {Exception 1.) 

The long and short of the matter are simply this. 

James, and also his brother, have left school. 

Every herb, every shrub, and every tree are beginning to bud. 

That noted poet and scholar have passed from earth. {Ex- 
ception 1.) 

Not a loud voice, but strong proofs, brings conviction. 

The saint, the father, and the husband pray. {Exception 1.) 

The ebb and flow of the tides are now understood. 



Parsing* 

Parse each verb in the preceding exercise. 



Rule XI.— Singular Nominatives. 

When a verb has two or more singular nominatives 
connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the 
singular number; as, "Fear or jealousy affects him." 



AGREEMENT. 171 

Observations. 

1 . When the latter nominative is parenthetical, the verb agrees with 
the former only, as, "One example, or ten, says nothing against the 
universal opinion." — Leigh Hunt. 

2. When the latter of the two nouns connected is used to explain the 
former, the principal subject alone controls the verb; as, "The Mexi- 
can figures, or picture-writing, represent things, not words. " 

Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 

I. — When a verb has nominatives of different persons or 
numbers, connected by or or nor, it must agree with that 
which is placed next to it, and be understood to the rest, in 
the person and number required ; as, " Neither he nor his 
brothers were there." — "Neither you nor I am concerned." 

II. — But when the nominatives require different forms of 
the verb, it is in general more elegant to express the verb, or 
its auxiliary, in connection with each of them ; as, " Either 
thou art to blame, or I am." — "Neither were their numbers, 
nor was their destination known." 

HE. — The speaker should generally mention himself last; 
as, " Thou or /must go." — "He then addressed his discourse 
to my father and me." But in confessing a fault he may as- 
sume the first place ; as, " /and Robert did it." 

IV. — Two or more distinct subject phrases connected by or 
or nor, require a singular verb ; as, "That a drunkard should 
be poor ■, or that a fop should be ignorant, is not strange." 

False Syntax. 

Example. — Ignorance or negligence have caused this mis- 
take. 

Formui/e.— Not proper, because the verb have caused is of the plural number, and 
does not correctly agree with its two nominatives, ignorance and negligence, which are 
connected by or. But, according to Rule XI., "When a verb has two or more singular 
nominatives, connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the singular number." 
Therefore, have caused should be has caused ; thus, Ignorance or negligence has caused 
this mistake. 

Neither imprudence, credulity, nor vanity, have ever been im- 
puted to him. 
What the heart or the imagination dictate flows readily. 



172 SYNTAX. 

Neither authority nor analogy support such an opinion. 

Either ability or inclination were wanting. 

Kedundant grass or heath afford abundance to their cattle. 

The returns of kindness are sweet ; and there are neither 
honor, nor virtue, nor utility in repelling them. 

The sense or drift of a proposition, often depend upon a sin- 
gle letter. 

I. 

Neither he nor you was there. 

Either the boys or I were in fault. 

Neither he nor I intends to be present. 

Neither the captain nor the sailors was saved. 

Whether one person or more was concerned in the business 
does not yet appear. 

n. 

Are they expected or I to be there ? 

Neither he, nor am I, capable of it. 

Either he has been imprudent, or his associates vindictive. 

Neither were their riches, nor their influence great. 

m. 

I and my father were riding out. 

The premiums were given to me and George. 

I and Jane are invited. 

They ought to invite me and my sister. 

We dreamed a dream in one night, I and he. 

IV. 

To practice tale-bearing, or even to countenance it, are great 

injustice. 
To reveal secrets, or to betray one's friends, are contemptible 

perfidy. 

Promiscuous. 

Ignorance or negligence have caused the mistake. 
Neither the man nor his sons has been here. 
Either he or I are mistaken. 
Neither thou nor I art to blame. 



AGREEMENT. 173 

To have brilliant talents, or to amass great riches, render most 

persons very proud. 
Neither I nor my father are able to be present. 
Vanity, ambition, or sensuality lead many to ruin. 
To read or to write were equally difficult to her. 
Neither the captain nor the passengers was saved. 

Parsing. 

Parse each of the verbs in the preceding exercise. 



Rule XII.— Verbs Connected. 

When verbs are connected by a conjunction, they must 
either agree in mood, tense, and form, or have separate 
nominatives expressed ; as, " He himself held the plough, 
sowed the grain, and attended the reapers." — " She was 
proud, but she is now humble." 

Exception. 

Verbs differing in mood, tense, or form, may sometimes agree with, 
the same nominative, especially if the simplest verbs be placed first ; as, 
"What nothing earthly gives or can destroy." — Pope. 
"Some are, and must be, greater than the rest." — Id. 

Observation. 

Those parts which are common to several verbs, are generally ex- 
pressed to the first, and understood to the rest; as, "Every sincere en- 
deavor to amend shall be assisted, [shall be~] accepted, and {shall be~] 
rewarded." — "Honorably do the best you can" [do]. — "He thought as 
I did" [think]. — "You have seen it, but I have not" [seen it]. — "If 
you go, I will " [go]. 

Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 

I. — The preterit should not be employed to form the com- 
pound tenses, nor should the perfect participle be used for 
the preterit. Thus say, " To have gone" — not, " To have 
went;" and, "I did it" — not, " I done it." 



174 SYNTAX. 

II. — Care should be taken to give every verb its appropriate 
form and signification. Thus say, "He lay by the fire," — 
not, "He laid by the fire;" — "He had entered into the con- 
nection," — not, "He was entered into the connection;" — "I 
would rather stay" — not, " I had rather stay." 

Obs.— Several verbs which resemble each other in form, are fre- 
quently confounded : as, to flee, to fly ; to lay, to lie ; to sit, to set ; to 
fall, to fell ; to rend, to rent; to ride, to rid, etc. Some others are 
often misapplied ; as, learn for teach. There are also erroneous forms 
of some of the compound tenses; as, "We will be convinced," for, "We 
shall be convinced."— "If I had have seen him," for, "If I had seen 
him." All such errors are to be corrected by the foregoing note. 

False Syntax, 

Obb. — Errors under this rule may generally be corrected in three 
ways: 1. By changing the first verb, to agree with the second; 2. By 
changing the second verb, to agree with the first ; 3. By inserting the 
nominative. 

Example. — They would neither go in themselves, nor suf- 
fered others to enter. 

Formule. — Xot proper, because the two verbs icould go and suffered, which are con- 
nected by separate nominatives, do not agree in mood. But, according to Rule XII., 
" When verbs are connected by a conjunction, they must either agree in mood, tense, 
and form, or have separate nominatives expressed." The sentence is best corrected by 
changing suffered to icould buffer {icould understood) ; thus, They icoitid neither go in 
themselves, nor suffer others to enter. 

He will fail, and therefore should not undertake it. 

Doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and goeth into the 
mountains, and seeketh that which is gone astray ? 

Did he not tell thee his fault, and entreated thee to forgive 
him ? 

If he understands the business, and attend to it, wherein is he 
deficient ? 

The day is approaching, and hastens upon us, in which we 
must give an account of our stewardship. 

If thou dost not turn unto the Lord, but forget him who re- 
membered thee in thy distress, great will be thy con- 
demnation. 



AGREEMENT. 175 

There are a few who have kept their integrity to the Lord, 
and prefer his truth to all other enjoyments. 

This report was current yesterday, and agrees with what we 
heard before. 

Virtue is generally praised, and would be generally practiced 
also, if men were wise. 

I. 

He would have went with us, if we had invited him. 
They have chose the part of honor and virtue. 
He soon begun to be weary of having nothing to do. 
Somebody has broke my slate. 
I seen him when he done it. 

H. 

He was entered into the cons}Diracy. 
The Southern planters grow cotton and rice. 
The report is predicated on truth. 
I entered the room and set down. 
Go and lay down, my son. 

^ith such books, it will always be difficult to learn children 
to read. 



Rule XIII.— Subject and Attribute. 

Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, and their 
participles, take the same case after as before them, when 
both words refer to the same thing ; as, " He returned a 
friend, who came a, foe" — jPoj?e. " The child was named 
John" — "It could not be he" 

Observations. 

1. This rule, as one of agreement, may be more simply stated : — The 
attribute agrees in case with tbe subject. 

2. The neuter verb be, that connects tbe subject and the attribute, is 
called the copula, because it couples, or joins together, these two parts 
of the sentence. In the case of other verbs, the copula may be supplied 
by changing the form: as. "The child sleeps;" equivalent to, "The 
child is sleeping." 



176 SYNTAX. 

3. The verb to be, in most cases, only affirms, or indicates otherwise, 
the connection existing between the subject and the attribute. When 
the latter is a noun, it may express — 1. Class ; as, "Cain was a mur- 
derer." 2. Identity ; as, " Cain was the murderer of Abel. " 3. Nmne ; 
as, ' ' The child was called John. " When mere existence is predicated, 
the verb be comprehends both the predicate and the attribute. 

4. Class, identity, name, or quality may be attributed to the subject in 
various ways : 

1. By affirming directly a connection between it and the subject, as 

in the preceding examples. 

2. By affirming it to belong to the subject, in connection with a 

particular act or state of being ; as, ' ' She looked a goddess, and 
she walked a queen." — "The sun stood still." 

3. By affirming a connection, as the result of a change; as, "He 

lias become a scholar." 

4. By affirming a connection, as the result of a process; as, "He 

was elected President." — "The twig has grown a tree." 

5. The attribute is often used indefinitely, that is, without reference 
to any particular subject ; as, " To be good is to be happy." — "To be a 
poet requires genius. " In analyzing, this may be called the indefinite 
attribute. 

6. An attribute is sometimes indirectly affirmed of, or otherwise con- 
nected with, the object of a verb ; as, " They elected him president." — 
"Vice has left him without friends" (i. e. , friendless). This is to be 
considered as a modification of the predicate, and may be properly 
called the indirect attribute. 

7. The conjunction as is often employed to express the connection be- 
tween the attribute and the subject or object to which it refers ; as, 
11 She was known as Curiosity." — " They engaged her as a governess." 

8. In interrogative sentences, the terms are usually transposed, or 
both are placed after the verb ; as, 

" Whence, and what art thou, execrable shape ? " — Milton. 

" Art thou that traitor angel ? Art thou he ? " — Idem. 
And in a declarative sentence, there may be a rhetorical or poetical 
transposition of the terms ; as, "I was eyes to the blind, and/ee£ was 1 
to the lame." — Job, xxix. 

" Far other scene is Thrasymend now." — Byron. 

9. In some peculiar constructions, both words naturally come before 
the verb ; as, "I know not who she is." — " Inquire thou whose son the 
stripling is." — 1 Sam., xvii. "Man would not be the creature which 
Aenowis." — Blair. " I could not guess who it should be." — Addison 



AGREEMENT. 177 

And they are sometimes placed in this manner by hyperbaton, or trans- 
position ; as, "Yet He it is." — Young. " No contemptible orator lie 
was." — -SteV. 

10. When the attribute is used with infinitives or participles, care 
must be taken to refer it to its proper subject, so as to determine its 
case by agreement. Sometimes the attribute, in such constructions, is 
indirect or indefinite, and sometimes it agrees with a preceding objec- 
tive, which is the subject of the infinitive. Examples: " Who then 
can bear the thought of being an outcast from his presence ? " — Addison. 
" /cannot help being so passionate an admirer as I am." — Steele. " To 
affect to be a lord in one's closet, would be a romantic madness.' 1 '' Here 
lord is indefinite. 

False Syntax* 

Example. — We did not know that it was him. 

FORMUliE. — Not proper, because the pronoun him, which belongs after the neuter verb 
was, is in the objective case, and does not agree with the pronoun it, which belongs be- 
fore it as the nominative ; both words referring to the same thing. But, according to 
Rule XIII., "Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, and their participles, take 
the same case after as before them, when both words refer to the same thing." There- 
fore, him should be he ; thus, We did not know that it was he. 

We thought it was thee. 
I would act the same part, if I were him. 
It could not have been her. 
It is not me, that he is angry with. 
They believed it to be I. 
It was thought to be him. 
If it had been her, she would have told us 
We know it to be they. 
Whom do you think it is ? 
Who do you suppose it to be ? 
We did not know whom they were. 
Thou art him whom they described. 
Impossible ! it can't be me. 
Whom did he think you were ? 
Whom say ye that I am ? 
Art thou him whom they say thou art ? 

If I had known it to be she, I should have spoken to her in a 
very different manner. 



178 SYNTAX. 

Parsing. 

Parse each of the attributes in the above sentences, and in the following 

Example 1. — "They said it was he." 

He is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and 
in the nominative case, agreeing with the subject it ; according to the rule, — Active-in- 
transitive, passive, and neuter verbs, etc. 

Example 2. — " Whom do they think him to be ? " 

TWiom is an interrogative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, masculine 
gender, and in the objective case, agreeing with him; according to the rule, etc.; the 
grammatical order, when transposed, being, They think him to be whom, equivalent to, 
They think that he is who ; or, in the proper order, Who do they think that he is ? 

A region of repose it seems. The southwest wind blew fresh and fair. 
Make not thyself the judge of any man. He prized what others looked 
upon as trifles. He was fond of being the champion of innocence. To 
be an upright man is better than to be a millionaire. To affect to be 
a scholar is to prove yourself a pedant. For a man to be a true 
patriot, he must be willing to die for his country. It is not I that he is 
provoked at. 



Rule XIV. — Pronoun and Antecedent. 

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun 
or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and 
gender ; as, " I, who am your friend, will aid you." 

Exceptions. 

1. When a pronoun stands for some person or thing indefinite or un- 
known to the speaker, this rule is not strictly applicable ; because the 
person, number, and gender, are rather assumed than regulated by an 
antecedent ; as, "I do not care who knows it." — Steele. " Who touched 
me ? Tell me who it was." 

2. The neuter pronoun it may be applied to a young child, or to other 
creatures masculine or feminine by nature, when they are not obviously 
distinguishable with regard to sex ; as, " Which is the real friend to the 
child, the person who gives it the sweetmeats, or the person who, con- 
sidering only its health, resists its importunities ? " — Opie. " He loads 
the animal, he is showing me, with so many trappings and collars, that 
I cannot distinctly view it." — Murray. "The nightingale sings most 
sweetly when it sings in the night." — Burke. 



AGREEMENT. 179 

3. The pronoun it is often used without a definite reference to any 
particular person or thing ; as, " Whether she grapple it with the pride of 
philosophy." — Chalmers. " Come, and trip it as you go." — Milton. 

4. A singular antecedent with the adjective many, sometimes admits 
a plural pronoun, but never in the same clause ; as, 

11 In Hawick twinkled many a light, 
Behind him soon they set in night." — Scott 

5. When a plural pronoun is put by enallage for the singular, it does 
not agree with its noun in number, because it still requires a plural 
verb; as, " We [Lindley Murray] hate followed those authors." — Mur- 
ray. "We sliall close our remarks on this subject." — lb. " My lord 
you know I love you." 11 — Shakspeare. 

Observations. 

1. While every pronoun must represent some noun or pronoun, ex- 
pressed or understood, it is only the relative pronoun that necessarily 
has an antecedent (word going before). The pronoun must always agree 
with the noun or pronoun which it represents, whether it be an anteced- 
ent or not. The antecedent of a relative pronoun is always in the same 
sentence ; but it is in the principal clause, while the relative is in the 
dependent clause. 

2. The pronoun we is used by the speaker to represent himself and 
others, and is therefore plural. But it is sometimes used, by a sort of 
fiction, instead of the singular, to intimate that the speaker is not alone in 
his opinions. Monarchs sometimes join it to a singular noun; as, " We 
Alexander, Autocrat of all the Russias." They also employ the com- 
pound our self which is not used by other people. 

3. When a pronoun represents the name of an inanimate object per- 
sonified, it agrees with its antecedent in the figurative, and not in the 
literal sense; [See the figure Syllepsis, in Part IV.] as, 

' ' Penance dreams her life away. " — Rogers. 

" Grim Darkness furls his leaden shroud." — Id. 

4. When the antecedent is applied metaphorically, the pronoun agrees 
with it in its literal, and not in its figurative sense ; as, " Pitt was the 
pillar which upheld the state." — "The monarch of mountains rears his 
snowy head." [See Figures, in Part IV.] 

5. When the antecedent is put by metonymy for a noun of different 
properties, the pronoun sometimes agrees with it in the figurative, and 
sometimes in the literal sense ; as, ' ' And heaven beholds its image 
in his breast." — Pope. 

" The wolf, who [that] from the nightly fold, 
Pierce drags the bleating prey, ne'er drunk her milk, 
Nor wore her warming fleece." — Thomson. 



180 SYNTAX. 

6. When the antecedent is put by synecdoche for more or less than it 
literally signifies, the pronoun agrees with it in the figurative, and not 
in the literal sense ; as, 

" A dauntless soul erect, who smiled on death." — Tlwmson. 

7. Pronouns usually follow the words which they represent ; hut this 
order is sometimes reversed ; as, ' ' Whom the cap fits, let him put it on. " 
— " Hark ! they whisper ; angels say," etc. 

8. A pronoun sometimes represents a phrase or sentence ; and in this 
case, the pronoun is always in the third person singular neuter ; as, 
" She is very handsome ; and she has the misfortune to know iV "Yet 
men can go on to vilify or disregard Christianity ; which is to talk and 
act as if they had a demonstration of its falsehood." — Bp. Butler. 

9. After the pronoun it, used indefinitely, and followed by a pronoun 
of any person, number, or gender, as the attribute, the relative usually 
is made to agree with the latter instead of the former ; as, " It is not I 
that have done it," This construction is anomalous. 

• 10. The pronoun it is often used to represent an explanatory phrase 
or clause coming after the verb ; as, "It is impossible to please every 
one." — " It was requisite that the papers should be sent." 

11. In familiar language, the relative in the objective case is fre- 
quently understood ; as, ' ' Here is the letter [which] I received. " The 
omission of the relative in the nominative case, is inelegant ; as, "This 
is the worst thing [that] could happen." The latter ellipsis sometimes 
occurs in poetry ; as, "In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man." — Pope. 

12. The antecedent is sometimes suppressed, especially in poetry ; as, 
"How shall I curse [him or them] whom God hath not cursed ?"— - 
Numb. , xxiii. 

[Be] "Who lives to nature, rarely can be poor ; 

[He] Who lives to fancy, never can be rich. " — Young. 

13. What is sometimes used adverbially; as, "Though I forbear, 
what am I eased?" — Job. That is, how much? or wherein? "The 
enemy having his country wasted, what by himself and what by the 
soldiers, findeth succor in no place." — Spenser. Here what means 
partly — " wasted partly by himself and partly by the soldiers." 

14. What is sometimes used as a mere interjection ; as, 
"What! this a sleeve ? 'Tis like a demi-canon." — Shakspeare. 
" What ! can you lull the winged winds asleep ? " — Campbell. 

15. As frequently has the force of a relative pronoun; as, "Avoid 
such as are vicious." — "But to as many as received him," etc. — "He 
then read the conditions asfoUow." But when a clause or a sentence is 



AGREEMENT. 181 

the antecedent, it is better to consider as a conjunction, and to supply 
the pronoun it; as, "He is angry, as [it] appears by this letter." 

16. But sometimes seems to have the force of a relative and a nega- 
tive ; as, "Who is there but would pity them ? " Here but is equivalent 
to that not. 

Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 

I. — A pronoun should not be introduced in connection with 
words that belong more properly to the antecedent, or to an 
other pronoun ; as, 

"My banks they are furnished with bees." — Shenstone. 

Obs. — This is only an example of pleonasm, which is allowable and 
frequent in animated discourse but inelegant in any other. [See Pleo- 
nasm,, in Part IV.] 

II. — A change of number in the second person is inelegant 
and improper ; as, "You wept, and I for thee." 

Obs, — Poets have sometimes adopted this solecism, to avoid the harsh- 
ness of the verb in the second person singular ; as, 
' ' As, in that loved Athenian bower, 
You learn 1 d an all commanding power, 
Thy mimic soul, nymph endear'd ! 
Can well recall what then it heard." — Collins. 

HE. — The relative who is applied only to persons, and to 
animals personified ; and which, to brute animals and inani- 
mate things : as, " The judge ivho presided ; " — " The old 
crab who advised the young one ; " — " The horse which ran ; " 
— "The book which was given me." 

Obs. — Wliich, as well as who, was formerly applied to persons; as, 
' ' Our Father which art in heaven " — Bible. It may still be applied to 
a young child; as, "The child ichich died." — Or even to adults, when 
they are spoken of without regard to a distinct personality or identity ; 
as, " Which of you will go?"— "Crabb knoweth not ichich is which, 
himself or his parodist." — Leigh Hunt. 



182 SYNTAX. 

IV. — Nouns of multitude, unless they express persons di- 
rectly as such, should not be represented by the relative who : 
to say, " The family whom I visited," would hardly be proper ; 
that would here be better. When such nouns are strictly of 
the neuter gender, which may represent them ; as, " The 
committees which were appointed." 

V. — A proper name taken merely as a name, or an appella- 
tive taken in any sense not strictly personal, must be repre- 
sented by which, and not by who ; as, "Herod — ichich is but 
another name for cruelty." 

VI. — The relative that may be applied either to persons or 
to things. In the following cases it is generally preferable to 
who or which, unless it be necessary to use a preposition be- 
fore the relative : — 

1. After an adjective of the superlative degree, when the relative 
introduces a modifying clause ; as, "He was the^r-s^ that came.'* 

2. After the adjective same, to explain its import; as. "This is the 
same person that I met before." 

3. After the antecedent who; as, " Who that has common sense, can 
think so ? " 

4. After a joint reference to persons and things; as, "He spoke of 
the men and things that he had seen." 

5. After an unlimited antecedent, which the relative and its verb 
are to restrict; as, " Thoughts that breathe, and words that burn." 

6. After an antecedent introduced by the expletive it; as, " It is you 
that command."— " It was I that did it." 

7. And, in general, where the propriety of who or which is doubtful ; 
as, "The little child that was placed in the midst." 

VII. — When several relative clauses come in succession, and 
have a similar dependence in respect to the antecedent, the 
same pronoun must be employed in each ; as, " O thou icho 
art, and who wast, and who art to come ! " 

"VTQ. — The relative, and the preposition governing it, should 
not be omitted when they are necessary to give connection to 
the sentence ; as, "He is still in the situation [in which] you 
saw him." 

IX. — An adverb should not be used where a preposition and 



AGREEMENT. 183 

a relative pronoun would better express the relation of the 
terms ; as, "A cause luhere [for in which] justice is so much 
concerned." 

X. — Where a pronoun or a pronominal adjective will not 
express the meaning clearly, the noun must be repeated, or 
inserted instead of it. Example : " We see the beautiful 
variety of color in the rainbow, and are led to consider the 
cause of it " [that variety] . 

XI. — To prevent ambiguity or obscurity, the relative should 
be placed as near as possible to the antecedent. The follow- 
ing sentence is therefore faulty : " He is like a beast of prey, 
that is void of compassion." Better : " He that is void of 
compassion, is like a beast of prey." 

XH. — The pronoun tuhat should never be used instead of 
the conjunction that ; as, "He will not believe but what I am 
to blame." What should be that. 

XTTT — A pronoun should not be used to represent an 
adjective ; because it can neither express a concrete quality 
as such, nor convert it properly into an abstract. Exam- 
ple : "Be attentive ; without which you will learn nothing." 
Better : " Be attentive ; for without attention you will learn 
nothing." 

False Syntax. 

Example. — : No person should be censured for being care- 
ful of their reputation. 

Fohmule. — Not proper, because the pronoun their is of the plural number, and does 
not correctly represent its antecedent noun person, which is of the third person, singular, 
masculine. But, according to Kule XIV., "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, 
or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, numbei-, and gender." There- 
fore, their should be his; thus, No person should be censured for being careful of his 
reputation. 

Every one must judge of their own feelings. 

Can any person, on their entrance into the world, be fully 

secure that they shall not be deceived ? 
He cannot see one in prosperity without envying them. 
I gave him oats, but he would not eat it. 



184 SYNTAX. 

Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob. 
Take up the tongs, and put it in its place. 
Let each esteem others better than themselves. 
A person may make themselves happy without riches. 
Every man should try to provide for themselves. 
The mind of man should not be left without something on 
which to employ his energies. 

I. 

Many words they darken speech. 

These praises he then seemed inclined to retract them. 

These people they are all very ignorant. 

Asa his heart was perfect with the Lord. 

Who, instead of going about doing good, they are perpetually 
intent upon doing mischief. 

Whom ye delivered up, and denied him in the presence of 
Pontius Pilate. — Acts. 

Whom, when they had washed, they laid her in an upper cham- 
ber. — Acts. 

What I have mentioned there are witnesses of the fact. 

What he said he is now sorry for it. 

The empress, approving these conditions, she immediately 
ratified them. 

This incident, though it appears improbable, yet I cannot 
doubt the author's veracity. 

II. 

Thou art my father's brother, else would I reprove you. 

Your weakness is excusable, but thy wickedness is not. 

Now, my son, I forgive thee, and freely pardon your fault. 
You draw the inspiring breath of ancient song, 
Till nobly rises emulous thy own. — Thomson. 

m. 

This is the horse whom my father imported. 

Those are the birds whom we call gregarious. 

He has two brothers, one of which I am acquainted with. 

What was that creature whom Job called leviathan ? 



AGREEMENT. 185 

Those which desire to be safe, should be careful to do that 

which is right. 
A butterfly which thought himself an accomplished traveler, 

happened to light upon a bee-hive. 
There was a certain householder which planted a vineyard. 

IV. 

The races who anciently invaded Europe were Aryans. 

The court, who has great influence upon the public manners, 
ought to be very exemplary. 

The Persian armies whom the Greeks defeated had been con- 
sidered invincible. 

V. 

Judas (who is now another name for treachery) betrayed his 
master with a kiss. 

He alluded to Phalaris— who is a name for all that is cruel. 

VI. 

He was the first who entered. 

He was the drollest fellow whom I ever saw. 

This is the same man whom we saw before. 

Who is she who comes clothed in a robe of green ? 

The wife and fortune whom he gained, did not aid him. 

Men who are avaricious never have enough. 

All which I have is thine. 

Was it thou or the wind who shut the door ? 

It was not I who shut it. 

The babe who was in the cradle appeared to be healthy. 

VH. 
He is a man that knows what belongs to good manners, and 

who will not do a dishonorable act. 
The friend who was here, and that entertained us so much, 

will never be able to visit us again. 
The curiosities which he has brought home, and that we shall 

have the pleasure of seeing, are said to be very rare. 

vm 

Observe them in the order they stand. 

We proceeded immediately to the place we were directed. 



186 SYNTAX. 

My compamon remained a week in the state I left him 
The way I do it, is this. 

IX. 
Kemember the condition whence thou art rescued. 
I know of no rule how it may be done. 
He drew up a petition, where he too freely represented his 

own merits. 
The hour is hastening, when whatever praise or censure I have 

acquired, will be remembered with equal indifference. 

X. 

Many will acknowledge the excellence of religion, who cannot 

tell wherein it consists. 
Every difference of opinion is not that of principle. 
Next to the knowledge of God, this of ourselves seems most 

worthy of our endeavor. 

XI. 

Thou art thyself the man that committed the act, who hast 

thus condemned it. 
There is a certain majesty in simplicity, which is far above 

the quaintness of wit. 
Thou hast no right to judge who art a party concerned. 
It is impossible for such men as those, ever to determine this 

question, who are likely to get the appointment. 
There are millions of people in the empire of China, whose 

support is derived almost entirely from rice. 

xn. 

I had no idea but what the story was true. 

The post-boy is not so weary but what he can whistle. 

He had no intimation but what the men were honest. 

xm. 

Some men are too ignorant to be humble ; without which 

there can be no docility. 
Judas declared him innocent, which he could not be, had he 

in any respect deceived the disciples. 



AGREEMENT. 187 

Be accurate in all you say or do, for it is important in all the 
concerns of life. 

Every law supposes the transgressor to be wicked, which in- 
deed he is, if the law is just. 

Promiscuous. 

Did you commit the same mistake which I corrected you for ? 
Let eyery one of them attend to their own affairs. 
The elephant whom they have tamed was brought from Africa. 
That is the worst crime which could have been perpetrated. 
They should have no aid from others who are negligent and 

slothful. 
Solomon was the wisest man whom the world ever saw. 
All which beauty, all which wealth ever bestowed must finally 

pass away. 
Do unto others as thou wouldst have others do unto you. 
Thou art the man who hast committed the crime, but it is I 

who has suffered. 
The man was arrested by the officers who committed that 

dreadful deed. 

Parsing, 

Parse all the pronouns in the sentences of the preceding exercise, and in 
the following. 

Example. — "I tliat speak unto thee am lie." 

J is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, masculine gender (from 
the context), and the nominative case, being the subject of the verb am, according to the 
rule, — A noun or pronoun, etc. 

That is a relative pronoun, and agrees with its antecedent I in the first person, singu- 
lar number, and masculine gender, according to the rule,— A pronoun must agree with its 
antecedent, etc. ; it is in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb speak ; 
according to the rule, etc. 

Thee is a personal pronoun, of the second person, singular number, common in gender, 
and in the objective case, being the objert of the preposition unto. 

He is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and 
the nominative case, being the attribute after am. and agreeing with the subject I ; ac- 
cording to the rule,— Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, etc. 

All that live must die. Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just. 
There is no law but can be evaded. Who reasons wisely is not always wise. 
Let such teach others who themselves excel. What will become of us 



188 SYNTAX. 

without religion ? He who does what he knows to be wrong is a sinner. 
Let him he who he may, he is not the person that he seemed. What 
are we to do ? Whom did you suppose me to he ? Call imperfections 
what thou fanciest such. He gave freedom to such as desired it. 
Thou who speakest to me art she. Whatsoever he doeth shall prosper. 



Rule XV.— Collective Antecedent. 

When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying tho 
idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the 
plural number ; but when it conveys the idea of unity, 
the pronoun must be singular ; as, " The council disagreed 
in their sentiments." — " The nation will enforce its laws." 

[See Observation under Rule IX.] 

False Syntax, 

Example. — The jury will be confined till it agrees on a 
verdict. 

Formule. — Not proper, because the pronoun it is of the singular number, and does 
not correctly represent its antecedent jury, which is a collective noun conveying tho 
idea of plurality. But, according to Rule XV., "When the antecedent is a collective 
noun, conveying the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the plural 
number." Therefore, it should be they ; thus, The jury will be confined till they agree 
on a verdict. 

In youth, the multitude eagerly pursue pleasure, as if it were 

its chief good. 
The council was not unanimous, and it separated without any 

decision. 
This court is famous for the justice of their decisions. 
I saw all the species thus delivered from its sorrows. 
A strange incident happened to the army, and put it in great 

consternation. 
The company have lost several of their members. 
A nation seldom duly reward their noblest benefactors. 
The new board of directors have elected their officers. 
The parliament will consider the matter at their next session. 
The army was eating its dinner, when they were attacked by 

the enemy, and having been defeated, a large part of it 

was slain. 



AGREEMENT. 189 

The convention then resolved themselves into a committee of 

the whole. 
The crowd was so great that the judges with difficulty made 

their way through them. 

Parsing* 

Parse each pronoun and each collective noun in the 



Rule XVI.— Connected Antecedents. 

When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected 
by and, it must agree with them in the plural number ; 
as. " James and John will favor us with their company." 

Exceptions. 

1. When two or more antecedents connected by and, serve merely to 
describe one person or tiling ; they are in apposition, and do not require 
a plnral pronoun ; as, " This great philosopher and statesman continued 
in public life till his eighty-second year. " . 

2. When two antecedents connected by and are emphatically distin- 
guished, they belong to different propositions, and (if singular) do not 
require a plural noun ; as, "'The butler, and not the baker, was restored 
to his office." — "The good man, and the sinner too, shall have his re- 
ward." 

3. When two or more antecedents connected by and are preceded by 
the adjective each, every, or no, they are taken separately, and do not 
require a plural pronoun ; as, ' ' Every plant and every tree produces 
others after its kind." 

Observations. 

1. When the antecedents are of different persons, the first person is 
preferred to the second, and the second to the third ; as, " John, and 
thou, and I, are attached to our country." — "John and thou are 
attached to your country." 

2. The gender of pronouns, except in the third person singular, is 
distinguished only by their antecedents. In expressing that of a pro- 
noun which has antecedents of different genders, the masculine should 
be preferred to the feminine, and the feminine to the neuter. 

[See the Notes under Rule X., most ol which are applicable to the pronoun as well as 
to the verb.] 



190 SYNTAX. 

False Syntax. 

Example. — Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his 
countenance. 

Foemule.— Not proper, because the pronoun itself is of the singular number, and 
does not correctly represent its two antecedents discontent and sorrow, which are con- 
nected by and, and taken conjointly. But, according to Rule XVI., "When a pronoun 
has two or more antecedents connected by and, it must agree with them in the plural 
number." Therefore, itself should be themselves ; thus, Discontent and sorrow mani- 
fested themselves in his countenance. 

Your levity and heedlessness, if it continue, will prevent all 

substantial improvement. 
Poverty and obscurity will oppress him only who esteems it 

oppressive. 
Good sense and refined policy are obvious to few, because 

it cannot be discovered but by a train of reflection. 
Avoid haughtiness of behavior, and affectation of manners : it 

implies a want of solid merit. 
If love and unity continue, it will make you partakers of one 

another's joy. 
Suffer not jealousy and distrust to enter : it will destroy, like 

a canker, every germ of friendship. 
Hatred and animosity are inconsistent with Christian charity ; 

guard, therefore, against the slightest indulgence of it. 
Every man is entitled to liberty of conscience, and freedom of 

opinion, if he does not pervert it to the injury of others. 
Every plant, every flower, and every insect, show the wisdom 

of their Creator. (Exception 3.) 
Truth, and truth only, are worth seeking for their own sake. 

(Exception 2.) 
He and I love and obey their parents. (06s. 1.) 
You, your brother, and I must attend to their work. 
The same spirit, light, and life which enlighten also sanctify. 

(Exception 1.) 

Parsing. 

Parse each of the pronouns in the above sentences, when corrected. 



AGREEMENT. 191 



Rule XVI B. —Connected Antecedents. 

When a pronoun has two or more singular antecedents 
connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the 
singular number ; as, " James or John will favor us with 
his company." 

Observations. 

1. When a pronoun has two or more plural antecedents connected by 
or or nor, it is of course plural, and agrees with, them severally. To 
the foregoing rule, there are properly no exceptions. 

2. When antecedents of different persons, numbers, or genders, are 
connected by or or nor, they cannot, with strict propriety, be repre- 
sented by a pronoun that is not applicable to each of them. The fol- 
lowing sentence is therefore inaccurate : "Either thou or I am greatly 
mistaken in our judgment on this subject." — Murray' 1 s Key. But dif- 
ferent pronouns may be so connected as to refer to such antecedents 
taken separately ; as, ' ' By requiring greater labor from such slave or 
slaves, than he or she or they are able to perform." — Prince's Digest. 
Or, if the gender only be different, the masculine may involve the 
feminine by implication ; as, " If a man smite the eye of his servant or 
the eye of his maid that it perish, he shall let him go free for his eye's 
sake." — Exodus, xxi. , 26. 

False Syntax. 

Example. — Neither wealth nor honor can secure the happi- 
ness of their votaries. 

Foemule.— Not proper, because the pronoun their is of the plural number, and does 
not correctly represent its two antecedents icealth and honor, which are connected by 
nor, and taken disjunctively. But, according to Eule XVII., '""When a pronoun has two 
or more singular antecedents connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the sin- 
gular number." Therefore, their should be iU; thus, Xeither wealth nor honor can 
secure the happiness of its votaries. 

Neither Sarah, Ann, nor Jane, has performed their task. 

One or the other must relinquish their claim. 

A man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which 

will move only as they are moved. 
Rye or barley, when they are scorched, may supply the place 

of coffee. 



192 SYNTAX. 

A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a lecture as well 

as read them in a description. 
Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of 

life, for they may be thy own lot. 
Have you seen my ox or my cow, which have strayed from 

the pasture ? 
Neither Sarah nor her brother Charles seemed to know their 

lessons. 
Either you or I must be mistaken in our opinion. 

Parsing. . 

Parse al the pronouns in the above sentences, when corrected. 



III.— GOVERNMENT. 

Government has respect only to nouns, pronouns, 
verbs, participles, and prepositions ; the other five parts of 
speech neither govern nor are governed. The governing 
words may be either nouns, pronouns, verbs, participles, or 
prepositions ; the words governed are either nouns, pronouns, 
verbs, or participles. 

Rule XVIII.— Possessives. 

A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed 
by the name of the thing possessed ; as, 

" Theirs is the vanity, the learning thine; 
Touch'd by thy hand, again Rome's glories shine." 

Observations. 

1. When a noun or a pronoun in the possessive case is used as an 
attribute, it is governed by the subject to which it relates ; as, " The 
book is mine, and not Jo7in J s." 

2. The sign of the possessive is omitted in some appositive or connected 
terms; as, "In her brother Absalom's house." — "David and Jona- 
than's friendship." — "Adam and Eve's morning hymn." — "Behold, 
the heaven, and the heaven of heavens, is the Lord's thy God." — 
Deub, x. 



GOVEKNMENT. 193 

3. Where the governing noun cannot be easily mistaken, it is often 
omitted by ellipsis ; as, " At the aldermen's " [house]. — " A book of my 
brother's " [books]. — " A subject of the emperor's " [subjects]. 

4. The possessive sign is sometimes annexed to that part of a com- 
pound name, which is, of itself, in the objective case ; as, "The cap- 
iain-of -ike-guard's house." — Bible. "The Bard-oj - Lomond's lay is 
done." — Hogg. "Of the Ghildren-of-IsraeVs half thou shalt take one 
portion." — Num., xxxi. The hyphens, inserted here for illustration, 
are not usually employed. In the following phrase, the possessive sign 
is awkwarly added to an adjective: "In Henry the Eighth" 1 s time." 
Better : "In the time of Henry the Eighth." In the following line, the 
adjective elegantly takes the sign, there being an ellipsis of both nouns: 

" The rich man's joys increase, the poor's decay." — Goldsmith. 

5. To avoid a concurrence of hissing sounds, the s is sometimes 
omitted, and the apostrophe alone retained to mark the possessive singu- 
lar ; as, "For conscience' sake." — Bible. " Moses' minister." — Ibid. 
" Felix' room." — Ibid. "Achilles' wrath." — Pope. But in prose the 
full form should be used. 

6. A participle is sometimes used to govern the possessive case, while 
retaining the government and adjuncts of a participle ; as, " This will 
be the effect of the pupil's composing frequently. " — Murray. i ' What 
can be the reason of the committee's having delayed this business ? " — Id. 
Sometimes this construction is awkward, and should be avoided. Thus, 
it would be better to say, " Why have the committee delayed this busi- 



Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 

I. — In the use of the possessive case, its appropriate form 
should be observed ; thus, write men's, hers, its, ours, yours, 
theirs ; and not mens', her'g, it's, our's, yours their 's. 

II. — When nouns of the possessive case are connected by 
conjunctions, or put in apposition, the sign of possession must 
always be annexed to such, and such only, as immediately 
precede the governing noun, expressed or understood ; as, 
"John and Eliza's teacher is a man of more learning than 
James's or Andrew's." — "For David my servant's sake." — Bible. 
"Lost in love's and friendship's smile." — Scott. 

IH. — The relation of property may also be expressed by 
the preposition of and the objective : as, "The will of man; " 
for, " man's will." Of these forms, we should adopt that which 
9 



194 SYNTAX. 

will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable, 
and, by the use of both, avoid an unpleasant repetition of 
either. 

IV. — A noun governing the possessive plural, should not be 
made plural, unless the sense requires it. Thus say, "We 
have changed our mi?id," if only one purpose or opinion is 
meant. 

Obs. — A noun taken figuratively may be singular, when the literal 
meaning would require the plural : such expressions as, ' ' their face, " — 
" their neck" — " their hand" — " their head" — " their heart" — " our 
mouth" — " our life" — are frequent in the Scriptures, and are not im- 
proper. 

V. — The possessive case should not be prefixed to a parti- 
ciple, or to a participial phrase, where unnecessary, or when 
the construction thus formed would be awkward or inelegant. 
The following phrase is therefore faulty: "Adopted by the 
Goths in their pronouncing the Greek." Omit their. 

False Syntax. 

Example. — Thy ancestors virtue is not thine. 

Formttle. — Not proper, because the noun ancestors, which is intended for the pos- 
sessive plural, has not the appropriate form of that case. But, according to Note I., under 
Rule XVIII., " In the use of the possessive case, its appropriate form should be observed.'' 
An apostrophe is required after ancestors ; thus, Thy ancestors 1 virtue is not thine. 

I. 

Mans chief good is an upright mind. 

I will not destroy the city for ten s*ake. 

Moses rod was turned into a serpent. 

They are wolves in sheeps clothing. 

The tree is known by it's fruit. 

The privilege is not their's, any more than it is your's. 
Yet he was gentle as soft summer airs, 
Had grace for others sins, but none for theirs'. 

n. 

There is but little difference between the Earth and Venus's 
diameter. 



GOVERNMENT. 195 

This hat is John or James's. 

The store is opposite to Morris's and Company's. 

This palace had been the grand Sultan's Mahomet's, 

This was the Apostle's Paul's advice. 

Were Cain's occupation and Abel the same ? 

Were Cain and Abel's occupation the same ? 

Were Cain's and Abel's occupations the same ? 

Were Cain and Abel's parents the same ? 

Were Cain's parents and Abel the same ? 

Was Cain's and Abel's father there ? 

Were Cain's and Abel's parents there ? 

Thy Maker's will has placed thee here, 

A Maker's wise and good. 

m. 

The world's government is not left to chance. 
He was Louis the Sixteenth's son's heir. 
The throne we honor is the choice of the people. 
We met at my brother's partner's house. 
An account of the proceedings of the court of Alexander. 
Here is a copy of the Constitution of the Society of Teachers 
of the City of New York. 

IV. 

Their healths perhaps may be pretty well secured. 
We have all the talents committed to our charges. 
For your sakes forgave I it, in the sight of Christ. 
We are, for our parts, well satisfied. 
The pious cheerfully submit to their lots. 
Fools think it not worth their whiles to be wise. 

V. 

I rewarded the boy for his studying so diligently. 
Have you a rule for your thus parsing the participle ? 
He errs in his giving the word a double construction. 
By our offending others, we expose ourselves. 
They deserve our thanks for their quickly relieving us. 



196 SYNTAX. 

Promiscuous. 

Brown and Jones's house will be occupied by the respective 

owners. 
Edward the Second's death was a shocking one. 
I have seen neither William nor Charles's book. 
Socrates' sayings are recorded in Plato and Xenophon's 

works. 
Horace'- poems show great genius. 
Adam was Cain's and Abel's father. 
Men and women's shoes are made differently. 
Jones's and Taylor's store was destroyed by fire. 
All good people must take this lesson to their hearts. 
Queen Elizabeth mourned on account of Essex' sad fate. 

Parsing. 

Parse all the possessives in the above sentences when corrected. 

Rule XIX Object of the Verb. 

Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and preper- 
fect participles, govern the objective case ; as, " I found 
her assisting him? — " Having finished the work, I submit 
it." 

Observations. 

1. The objective case generally follows the governing word : but 
when it is emphatic, it often precedes the nominative ; as, " Me he re- 
stored to mine office, and him he hanged." — Gen. xli., 13. " Home he 
had not." — Thomson. " This point they have gained. " In poetry it is 
sometimes placed between the nominative and the verb ; as, " His dar- 
ing foe securely him defied." — Milton. "The broom its yellow leaf 
hath shed." 

2. An active-transitive verb is often followed by the direct object of 
the action, and the indirect object, or that in respect to which the action 
is performed. The latter is usually preceded by a preposition, which is 
sometimes understood; as, "I paid [to] him the money." — "They 
offered [to] me a seat." — " He asked [of] them the question." 

3. In expressing such sentences passively, the object of the preposi- 
tion is sometimes assumed for the nominative ; as, " He was paid the 



GOVEKNMENT. 197 

money" instead of, " The money was paid [to] him," The direct object 
should, however, generally be made the subject of the passive verb ; 
but in some cases, usage seems to sanction the reverse ; as, " The boy 
was taught grammar " / instead of, ' ' Grammar was taught [to] the 
boy." — "He was denied the privilege." In this construction, the noun 
following the passive still continues to be an object of the action ex- 
pressed by the verb, and is, accordingly, in the objective case. 

4. An active-transitive verb is sometimes followed by an object and 
an attribute agreeing with it ; as, " Thy saints proclaim thee king," i.e., 
that thou art king. — "The Author of my being formed me man." — 
Murray. "And God called the firmament Heaven." — Bible. And, in 
such a construction, the direct object is sometimes placed before the 
verb ; as, -' And Simon he surnamed Peter." — Mark iii. 

5. Some verbs, usually intransitive, govern only a noun of kin- 
dred meaning; as, "He lived a virtuous life." — "Joseph dreamed a 
dream." 

Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 

I. — Those verbs and participles which require an object, 
should not be used intransitively ; as, " She affects [kindness] 
in order to ingratiate [herself] with you." — "I will not allow 
of it." Omit of 

II. — Those verbs and participles which do not admit an 
object, should not be used transitively ; as, " The planters 
grovj cotton." Say raise, or cultivate. 

False Syntax. 

Example. — She I shall more readily forgive. 

Formule.— Not proper, because the pronoun she is in the nominative case, and is used 
as the object of the active-transitive verb shall forgive. But according to Rule XIX., 
"Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and preperfect participles, govern the ab- 
jective case." Therefore, she should be her ; thus, Eer I shall more readily forgive. 

Thou only have I chosen. 

Who shall we send on this errand ? 

My father allowed my brother and I to accompany him. 

He that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 

Who should I meet but my old Mend ! 

He accosts whoever he meets. 

Whosoever the court favors is safe. 

They that honor me I will honor. 



198 SYNTAX. 

Who do you think I saw the other day ? 
Let you and I avoid such company. 

I. 

The ambitious are always seeking to aggrandize. 
I must premise with three circumstances. 
This society does not allow of personal reflections. 
False accusation cannot diminish from real merit. 
His servants ye are to whom ye obey. 

n. 

Good keeping thrives the herd. 
We endeavored to agree the parties. 
Being weary, he sat him down. 
Go, flee thee away into the land of Judah. 
The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the 
subject. 

Parsing. 

Parse all the nouns and pronouns in the following sentences. 

His father presented him a gold watch. The teacher refused him 
permission. The savages at last gave them their liberty. They asked 
him a curious question. The governor offered him a large reward. 
They paid him the money. His father denied him the privilege. They 
showed him some beautiful pictures. 

Change the active-transitive verb in each of these sentences to a passive 
verb, using the direct or indirect object for the nominative, as may be 
preferable . 



Rule XX.— Object of the Preposition. 

Prepositions govern the objective case; as, "Beauty 
dwells in them, and they in her" 

Observations. 

1. Prepositions are sometimes elliptically construed with adjectives ; 
as, in vain, in secret, at first, on high ; i.e., in a vain manner, in secret 
places, at the first time, on high places. Such phrases imply time, place, 
degree, or manner, and are equivalent to adverbs. In parsing, the 
learner may supply the ellipsis. 

2. In a few instances prepositions precede adverbs ; as, at once, from 
above, for ever. These should be united, and parsed as adverbs, or else 
the adverb must be parsed as a noun. 



GOVEKNMENT. 199 

3 When nouns of time or measure are connected with verbs or adjec- 
tives, the prepositions which govern them, are generally suppressed ; as, 
' ' We rode sixt y miles that day ; " that is, ' ' through sixty miles on that 
day." — " The wall is ten feet high ; " that is, " high to ten feet." The 
ellipsis must he supplied, or the expression considered as adverbial. 

4. After the adjectives like, near, and nigh, the preposition to or unto 
is often understood ; as, " It is like [to or unto] silver." — AUen. " How 
like the former!" — Dry den. u Near yonder copse." — Goldsmith. 
1 ' Nigh this recess. " — Garth. As similarity and proximity are relations, 
and not qualities, it might seem proper to call like, near, and nigh, 
prepositions ; and some grammarians have so classed the last two. We 
have not placed them with the prepositions for four reasons: (1.) Be- 
cause they are sometimes compared ; (2.) Because they sometimes have 
adverbs evidently relating to them ; (3.) Because the preposition to or unto 
is sometimes expressed after them; and, (4.) Because the words which 
usually stand for them in the learned languages, are clearly adjectives. 
Like, when it expresses similarity of manner, and near and nigh, when 
they express proximity of degree, are adverbs. 

5. The adjective worth, like the words near, nigh, etc., is followed by 
a noun or a participle expressing limitation, without a governing prepo- 
sition ; as, "To reign is worth ambition." — Milton. "This is life in- 
deed, life worth preserving.''' 1 — Addison. The relation in this case, 
according to idiom, never being indicated by a preposition, cannot be 
expressed except by a periphrase ; but, it must be borne in mind, that it 
is the relation that governs, whether expressed or not. 

6. In the phrases, "woe worth the day," "woe worth the man," and 
the like, the word worth is the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb 
weordhan, to be, to become, to being understood ; hence the meaning 
is, Woe be to the day, etc. 

7. After verbs of giving, procuring, and some others, there is usually 
an ellipsis of to or for before the objective of the person ; as, " Give 
[to] him water to drink." — "Buy [for] me a knife." So also in the 
exclamation, " Woe is me! " meaning, " Woe is to me ! " 

8. After the verb cost, there is also an ellipsis of the preposition ; as, 
" A diamond gone, cost me two thousand ducats." — JShakspeare. 



False Syntax. 

Example. — It rests with thou and me to decide. 

FoEMtrLE. — Not proper, because the pronoun thou is in the nominative case, and is 
governed by the preposition with. But, according to Eule XX., " Prepositions govern 
the objective case." Therefore, thou should be thee ; thus, It rests with thee and me to 
decide. 



200 SYNTAX. 

Let that remain a secret between you and I. 
I lent the book to some one, I know not who. 
Who did he inquire for ? Thou. 
From he that is needy, turn not away. 
We are all accountable, each for his own act's. 
Does that boy know who he is speaking to ? 
I bestow my favors on whosoever I will. 
Except him and I, no one saw it. 

Parsing. 

Parse the prepositions and all words printed in Italics in the following 
sentences. 

My sister is five years of age. The house is twenty feet high. Envy 
is like the scorpion that stings itself to death. I gave my brother a bag 
of marbles. The house is worth ten thousand dollars. What he offered 
me was not worth having. In vain did they beseech him for mercy. 
The book cost me five dollars. Will you buy me a knife at the store ? 
In words, like weeds, I'll wrap me o'er. Be near me when I fade away. 



Rule XXI.— Infinitives. 

The preposition to commonly governs the infinitive 
mood, and connects it to a finite verb, or some other part of 
speech; as, "I desire to learn" — "I went to see my 
friend." — " He is anxious to succeed" 

Observations. 

1 . The word to, generally used with the infinitive mood, serves to in- 
dicate the mood (in the absence of a special inflection), and, usually, to 
express the relation between the verb and the word which it limits or 
modifies. In such cases, the infinitive mood with to is equivalent to a 
prepositional phrase. In other constructions, however, the word to 
loses its prepositional office ; as when the infinitive is used as the subject 
or the object of a verb. In the latter case, being the object of the verb, 
it cannot be the object of the preposition. 

2. When the infinitive is the object of the preposition, it may be 
joined to various parts of speech : — 

1. To a noun ; as, " He had leave to go." 

2. To an adjective ; as, "We were anxious to see you." 



GOVERNMENT. 201 

3. To an intransitive verb ; as, " He's gone to do it." — " I rejoice to 

hear it," 

4. To an adverb ; as, ' ' She is old enough to go to school. " 

5. To a pronoun ; as, " It is ours to transmit." 

3. The other usages of the infinitive mood are the following : — 

1. As the subject of a verb ; as, " To steal is sinful." 

2. As the object of a verb ; as, " He loves to ride. 1 '' 

3. As the attribute ; as, " To enjoy is to obey." — " He seemed to be 

guilty." — "His conduct is to be admired." — "They were to 
blame." 

4. As a mere term of comparison ; as, " He was so much affected 

as to zoeep." — " He knows better than to trust you." 

5. As the object of another preposition; as, "I was about to 

write." — "He did nothing but [to] idle away his time." 

6. As independent; as, "O to forget her!" — " To confess the 

truth, I was to blame." — " To be or not to be ; — that is the 
question." 

7. As the predicate in a dependent clause ; as, "I suppose it to be 

necessary." 
In this last case, the word to has, of course, no prepositional force, 
becoming merely the sign of the infinitive. 

4. An adverb, or other modifying expression, should not be inserted 
between the verb and the word to which belongs to it ; as, "It is wrong 
to stubbornly oppose the truth " ; say, " stubbornly to oppose," etc. 

5. The infinitive is often used in the perfect tense for the present ; 
as, " He intended to have done it" instead of, "to do it." 

6. The use of and for to, though very common, is improper and in- 
elegant ; as, " Will you try and do it for me ? " It should be, " to do 
it." 

False Syntax. 

Example. — Ought these things be tolerated ? 

Formui/e. — Not proper, because the infinitive be tolerated, is not preceded by the 
preposition to. But, according to Rule XXI., " The preposition to commonly governs 
the infinitive mood, and connects it to a finite verb or some other part of speech." There- 
fore, to should be inserted ; thus, Ought these things to be tolerated ? 

Please excuse my son's absence. 

Cause every man go out from me. 

I would not have let him gone. (Obs. 5.) 

Try and let me have the money, if you can. (Obs. 6.) 

To foolishly squander one's time is a sin. (Obs. 4.) 



202 SYNTAX. 

I expected to have been there in time. 

He was to finish the work before I came. 

It is requisite to carefully read a document before signing it. 

It is better to suffer wrongfully than be guilty of wrong. 

It is unjust to so decide the case. 

Parsing. 

Parse all the infinitives in the following sentences. 

Example 1. — The pupil had permission to go home. 

To go is an irregular, active-intransitive verb, from go, went, going, gone. It is in the 
infinitive mood, and present tense, and is governed by the preposition to, connecting it to 
the noun permission, which the phrase to go home modifies; according to the rule, — The 
preposition to commonly governs the infinitive mood, and connects it to a finite verb, or 
some other part of speech. 

Example 2. — To have required him to leave would have been to in- 
sult him. 

To have required is a regular, active-transitive verb, from require, required, requir- 
ing, required. It is in the infinitive mood and perfect tense, and, with its adjunct, is 
the subject of the verb would have been ; according to Obs. 3, under Rule XXI. 

To leave is an irregular, active-transitive verb, from leave, left, leaving, left. It is in 
the infinitive mood and present tense, and is the predicate of the object clause him to 
leave — equivalent to that he should leave ; according to Obs. 3, under Rule XXI. 

To insult is a regular, active-transitive verb, fron insult, insulted, insulting, insulted. 
It is in the infinitive mood, present tense, and with its adjunct him, is the attribute after 
would have been ; according to Obs. 3, Rule XXL 

To be temperate in all things is the characteristic of a wise man. 
His father had much to say to him. They asked if it was good to eat- 
To apeak rashly is a great fault. He begged to be allowed to go home. 
The event is greatly to be deplored. The ship was to sail last week. 
They were prone to find fault, and very hard to please. Have you had 
nothing to eat to-day ? This is to be done without delay. They forced 
him to do it. He was obliged to remain. He was seen to commit the 
act. Nobody imagined him to be so cruel. We have a duty to per- 
form. Generations yet to be born shall lament this event. He believed 
his son to have been punished unjustly. The army was commanded to 
march against the enemy. Be so good as to tell me of the affair. He 
knows better than to do such a thing. They said their only desire was 
to be let alone. He was about to depart when the officers came to arrest 
him. He said he weuld rather die than betray his friend. 
" None knew thee but to love thee, 
Nor named thee but to praise." 



MISCELLANEOUS RULES. 203 

IV. -MISCELLANEOUS RULES. 

Rule XXII.— Infinitives. 

The active verbs, hid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, 
see, and their participles, usually take the infinitive after 
them, without the preposition to ; as, "If he bade thee 
depart, how darest thou stay f " * 

Observations. 

1. The preposition is almost always employed after the passive form 
of these verbs, and in some instances after the active ; as, { ' He was 
heard to say." — " I cannot see to do it." — "What would dare to molest 
him who might call, on every side, to thousands enriched by his 
bounty ? " — Dr. Johnson. 

2. The auxiliary be of the passive infinitive is also suppressed, after 
feel, hear, make, and see; as, "I heard the letter read," — not, " be 
read." 

3. A few other verbs, besides the eight which are mentioned in the 
foregoing rule, sometimes have the infinitive after them without to ; 
such as, behold, find, have, help, mark, observe, and other equivalents of 
see. Example : ' ' Certainly it is heaven upon earth, to have a man's 
mind move in charity, rest in Providence, and turn upon the poles of 
truth." — Bacon. 

False Syntax. 

Example. — They need not to call upon her. 

Formule.— Not proper, because the preposition to is inserted before call, which fol- 
lows the active verb need. But, according to Eule XXII., " The active verbs bid, dare, 
feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and their participles, usually take the infinitive after 
them, without the preposition to." Therefore, to should be omitted ; thus, They need 
not call upon her 

I felt a chilling sensation to creep over me. 

I have heard him to mention the subject. 

Bid the boys to come in immediately. 

I dare to say he has not got home yet. 

Let no rash promise to be made. 

We sometimes see bad men to be honored. 

A good reader will make himself to be distinctly heard. 

Do you not observe it to move ? 



204 SYNTAX. 

Can I not make this matter be understood ? 
Bid the officers to do their duty. 
They have been bidden do it already. 

Parsing, 

Parse all the infinitives in the above sentences when corrected. 

Example. — "Let love be without dissimulation." 

Be is an irregi#ar, neuter verb, from be, was, being, been. It is in 

. the infinitive mood and present tense, being the predicate of the clause 

dependent on let, according to Obs. 3, under Rule XXI. The word to is 

omitted after let, according to the rule, — The active verbs bid, dare, etc. 



Rule XXIII. — Subjunctive Mood. 

A future contingency is best expressed by a verb in 
the subjunctive present ; and a mere supposition with 
indefinite time, by a verb in the subjunctive imperfect : 
but a conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, requires 
the indicative mood ; as, " If thou forsake him, he will 
cast thee off forever." — " If it were not so, I would have 
told you." — " If thou went, nothing would be gained." — 
" Though he is poor, he is contented." 

Obs. — The pupil must carefully study the three points involved in 
this rule, and the cases to which they apply. The subjunctive mood is 
required only when the event or fact is both future and contingent, that 
is, dependent upon the occurrence of some other future event. The 
time is indefinite, being, only relatively, present or past. The difference 
between the conditional statement of a fact and a future contingency 
will be obvious from these two sentences : — 

1. If he be sick, I will visit him. {Subjunctive.) 

2. Though he is sick, he does not repine. (Indicative.) 

In (1) the act of visiting is future and contingent upon his sickness ; 
in (2) the sickness is a fact (he is sick), and he does not repine. The 
sentence, If he were sick, I would visit him, contains a supposition with 
indefinite time (if he were sick at any time). It is relatively past, as 
these sentences will show: — 

1. If he be sick (and he may be), I will visit him. 

2. If he were sick (but he is not), I would visit him. 

3. If he had been sick (but he was not), I would have visited him. 



MISCELLANEOUS RULES. 205 

False Syntax. 
First Clause of the Rule. 

Example. — He will not be pardoned, unless he repents. 

Fokmule. — Not proper, because the verb repents, which is used to express a future 
contingency, is in the indicative mood. But, according to the first clause of Rule XXIII., 
"A future contingency is best expressed by a verb in the subjunctive present. There- 
fore, repents should be repent ; thus, He will not be pardoned, unless he repent. 

He will maintain his cause, though he loses his estate. 

They will fine thee, unless thou offerest an excuse. 

I shall walk out in the afternoon, unless it rains. 

Let him take heed lest he falls. 

On condition that he comes, I consent to stay. 

If he is but discreet, he will succeed. 

Take heed that thou speakest not to Jacob. 

If thou castest me off, I shall be miserable. 

Send them to me, if thou pleasest. 

Watch the door of thy lips, lest thou utterest folly. 

Second Clause. 

Example. — And so would I, if I was he. 

Foemule. — Not proper, because the verb icas, which is used to express a mere snp* 
position, with indefinite time, is in the indicative mood. But, according to the second 
clause of Rule XXIII., "A mere supposition, with indefinite time, is best expressed by a 
verb in the subjunctive imperfect." Therefore icas should be were ; thus, And so would 
I, if I were he. 

If I was to write, he would not regard it. 

If thou feltest as I do, we should soon decide. 

Though thou sheddest thy blood in the cause, it would but 

prove thee sincerely a fool. 
If thou lovedst him, there would be more evidence of it. 
I believed, whatever was the issue, all would be well. 
If love was never feigned, it would appear to be scarce. 
There fell from his eyes as it had been scales. 
If he was an imposter, he must have been detected. 
Was death denied, all men would wish to die. 
O that there was yet a day to redress thy wrongs ! 
Though thou was huge as Atlas, thy efforts would be vain. 



206 SYNTAX. 

Last Clause. 

Example. — If he know the way, he does not need a guide. 

Formule.— Not proper, because the verb knoio, which is used to express a conditional 
circumstance assumed as a fact, is in the subjunctive mood. But, according to the last 
clause of Rule XXIII., "A conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, requires the in- 
dicative mood.'" Therefore, know should be k?iows ; thus, If he knows the way, he does 
not need a guide. 

Though he seem to be artless, he has deceived us. 
If he be defeated, he has not given up all hope. 
Though this event be strange, it certainly did happen. 
If thou love tranquillity of mind, why engage in disputes ? 
If seasons of idleness be dangerous, what must a continued 

habit of it prove. 
Though he were a son, yet learned he obedience by the things 

which he suffered. 
I knew thou wert not slow to hear. 

Analysis and Parsing. 

Analyze and parse each of the foregoing sentences, after correction, 
according to preceding examples, and apply Rule XXIII. 



Rule XXIV.— Independent Case. 

A noun or a pronoun is put in the nominative, when its 
case depends on no other word ; as, " He failing, who 
shall meet success ? " — " Your fathers, where are they ? " 

Exception. 

An independent pronoun is sometimes used in the objective case ; as, 
11 Me miserable ! which way shall I fly ? "—Milton. " Ah me ! " [See 
Obs. 2, Rule XXVI.] 

Observations. 

1. A noun or a pronoun is independent under the following four 
circumstances : — 

1. When, with a participle, it is used to express a cause or some 
other related event; as, "Thou looking on, I shall not fail.'' 
This is usually called the case absolute. 



MISCELLANEOUS RULES. 207 

2. When it is used to indicate simply the person addressed ; as, " O 

thou that dwellest in the heavens. " 

3. When, by pleonasm, it is introduced abruptly for the sake of 

emphasis ; as, ' ' He that is in the city, famine and pestilence 
shall devour him." 

4. When, by mere exclamation, it is used without address, and 

without other words expressed or implied to give it construc- 
tion; as, "O, what folly!" 

2. The nominative put absolute with a participle, is equivalent to a 
dependent clause commencing with ichen, ichile, if, since, or because; 
as, "I being a child," — equal to, " When [since or because] I was a child." 

3. The participle being is often understood after nouns or pronouns 
put absolute ; as, 

' ' Alike in ignorance, his reason [ ] such, 

Whether he thinks too little or too much." — Pope. 

4. The case of nouns used in exclamations, or in mottoes and abbre- 
viated sayings, often depends, or may be conceived to depend, on 
something understood ; and, when their construction can be satisfac- 
torily explained on the principle of ellipsis, they are not put absolute. 
The following examples may perhaps be resolved in this manner, 
though the expressions will lose much of their vivacity ; "A horse ! 
a horse ! my kingdom for a horse ! " 

False Syntax. 

Example. — Him having ended his discourse, the assembly 
dispersed. 

Fobmtjle. — Not proper, because the pronoun him, whose case depends on no other 
word, is in the objective case. But, according to Rule XXIV., " A noun or a pronoun is 
put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word." Therefore, 
him should be he ; thus, He having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed. 

Me being young, they deceived me. 

Them refusing to comply, I withdrew. 

Thee being present, he would not tell what he knew. 

The child is lost ; and me, whither shall I go ! 

Oh happy us ! surrounded thus with blessings ! 

" Thee too ! Brutus, my sou ! " cried Caesar, overcome. 

Jut him, the chieftain of them all, 

His sword hangs rusting on the wall. 

Her quick relapsing to her former state, 

With boding fears approach the serving train. 



208 SYNTAX. 

There all thy gifts and graces we display, 
Thee, only thee, directing all our way. 

Parsing. 

Parse the independent nouns and pronouns in the foregoing sentences, 
when corrected. 



Rule XXV.— Conjunctions. 

Conjunctions connect either words or sentences ; as, 
" John and James are studious, hut William is idle." 

Exceptions. 

1. The conjunction that sometimes serves merely to introduce a sen- 
tence which is made the subject of a verb; as, " 2 hat mind is not 
matter, is certain." Its connective force consists in showing that the 
clause is dependent. 

2. When two corresponding conjunctions occur in their usual order, 
the former should be considered as referring to the latter, which is more 
properly the connecting word ; as, ' ' Neither sun nor stars in many days 
appeared." 

3. Either, corresponding to or, and neither, corresponding to nor or 
not, are sometimes transposed, so as to repeat the disjunction or nega- 
tion at the end of the sentence ; as, " Where then was their capacity of 
standing, or his either ? " — Barclay. "It is not dangerous neither.'''' — 
Bolingbroke. " He is very tall, but not too tall neither.''' — Spectator. 

Observations. 

1. Conjunctions are sometimes unnecessarily accumulated ; as, " But 
and if that evil servant say in his heart." — Matthew xxiv. Omit and. 

2. In the combination but that, the former seems to have the force of 
a preposition, being equivalent to except; as, "What rests, but that 
the mortal sentence pass ? " — Milton. In this sentence, but seems to be 
a preposition, having the following clause for its object, the prepositional 
structure thus formed limiting what. 

3. The conjunction as is sometimes used to connect the attribute and 
the subject ; as, " He was employed as an usher." It may also connect the 
indirect attribute with an object to which it refers ; as, "He offered him- 
self as a journeyman." [In some cases of this kind, perhaps in the 
above sentences, as seems to have the force of a preposition, as it de- 
notes a relation which may usually be expressed by in the capacity of 



MISCELLANEOUS RULES. 209 

or the like; as, "His judgment as a critic was very reliable." Here 
critic appears to be the object of the relation expressed by as, which 
must, therefore, be a preposition. There, certainly, is no connection of 
appositional terms, nor of any subject and attribute. — Editor.] 

4. After than, or as expressing a comparison, there is usually an 
ellipsis of some word or words. The construction of the words employed 
may be known by supplying the ellipsis ; as, " She is younger than I " 
[ani]. — "He does nothing who endeavors to do more than [ichat] is al- 
lowed to humanity. " — Johnson. i ' My punishment is greater than [what] 
I can bear." — Bible. 

Notes, or Subordinate Rules. 

I. — When two terms connected refer jointly to a third, they 
must be adapted to it and to each other, both in sense and 
in form. Thus, instead of, "It always has, and always will 
be laudable," say, " It always has been, and it always will be 
laudable." 

II. — The disjunctive conjunction lest or but, should not be 
employed where the copulative that would be more proper : 
as, "I feared that I should be deserted ; " not, " lest I should 
be deserted." 

III. — After else, other, rather, and all comparatives, the latter 
term of comparison should be introduced by the conjunction 
than ; as, " Can there be any other than this ? " — " Is not the 
life more than meat ? " 

IV. — The words in each of the following pairs, are the 
proper correspondents to each other ; and care should be taken 
to give them their right place in the sentence. 

1. Though— yet ; as, "Though he were dead, yet shall he live." — 
John xi. 

2. Whether — or ; as, " Wliether there be few or many." 

3. Either — or ; as, "He was either ashamed or afraid." 

4. Neither — nor ; as, ' ' John the Baptist came neither eating bread 
nor drinking wine." — Luke vii. 

5. Both — and ; as, "I am debtor both to the Greeks and to the Bar- 
barians." — Bom. i. 

6. Such — as; as, "An assembly such as earth saw never." 

7. Such — that ; with a finite verb following, to express a consequence ; 
as, " My health is such that I cannot go." 



210 SYNTAX. 

8. As — as ; with an adjective or an adverb, to express equality ; as, 
" The peasant is as gay as he." 

9. As—so ; with two verbs, to express equality or proportion ; as, 
" As two are to four, so are six to twelve." 

10. So — as ; with an adjective or an adverb, to limit the degree by 
comparison ; as, " How can you descend to a thing so base as falsehood ? " 

11. So — as; with a negative preceding, to deny equality ; as, "No 
lamb was e'er so mild as he. " 

12. So — as ; with an infinitive following, to express a consequence ; 
as, " These difficulties were so great as to discourage him." 

13. So — that ; with a finite verb following, to express a consequence ; 
as, " He was so much injured, that he could not walk." 

False Syntax. 

Example. — The first proposal was essentially different and 
inferior to the second. 

Fokmule. — Not proper, because the preposition to, is used with joint reference to the 
two adjectives different and inferior, which require different prepositions. But, accor- 
ding to Note I. under Rule XXV., " When two terms connected refer jointly to a third, 
they must be adapted to it and to each other, both in sense and in form." The sentence 
may be corrected thus : The first proposal was essentially different from the second, and 
inferior to it. 

I. 

He has made alterations and additions to the work. 
He is more bold, but not so wise, as his companion. 
Sincerity is as valuable, and even more so, than knowledge. 
I always have, and I always shall be, of this opinion. 
What is now kept secret, shall be hereafter displayed and 

heard in the clearest light. 
We pervert the noble faculty of speech, when we use it to the 

defaming or to disquiet our neighbors. 
Be more anxious to acquire knowledge than of showing it. 
The court of chancery frequently mitigates and breaks the 

teeth of the common law. 
H. 
We were apprehensive lest some accident had happened. 
I do not deny but he has merit. 
Are you afraid lest he will forget you ? 

These paths and bow rs, doubt not but our joint hands 

Will keep from wilderness. — Milton. 



MISCELLANEOUS RULES. 211 

HI. 

It was no other but his own father. 

Have yon no other proof except this ? 

I expected something more besides this. 

He no sooner retires but his heart burns with devotion. 

Such literary niching is nothing else but robbery. 
IV. 

Neither despise or oppose what you do not understand. 

He would not either do it himself nor let me do it. 

The majesty of good things is such, as the confines of them 
are reverend. 

Whether he intends to do so I cannot tell. 

Send me such articles only that are adapted to this market. 

As far as I am able to judge, the book is well written. 

No errors are so trivial but they deserve correction. 

It will improve neither the mind nor delight the fancy. 

The one is equally deserving as the other. 

There is no condition so secure as cannot admit of change. 

Do you think this is so good as that ? 

The relations are so obscure as they require much thought. 

None is so fierce that dare stir him up. 

There was no man so sanguine who did not apprehend some 
ill consequence. 

I must be so candid to own that I do not understand it. 

The book is not as well printed as it ought to ber 
So still he sat as those who wait 
Till judgment speak the doom of fate. — Scott. 



Rule XXVI.— Interjections- 
Interjections have no dependent construction ; as, " ! 
let not thy heart despise me." — Johnson. 

Observations. 

1. The interjection is common to many languages, and is fre- 
quently prefixed to nouns or pronouns that are independent "by direct 
address; as, "Arise, Lord ; God, lift up thine hand."— Psalms x. 
" ye of little faith ! "—Matt. vi. 



212 SYNTAX. 

2. Interjections in English have no government. When a word not 
in the nominative absolute, follows an interjection, as part of an imper- 
fect exclamation, its construction depends on something understood ; 
as, " Ah me ! "—that is, " Ah ! pity me." — " Alas/c??' them ! "—that is, 
" Alas ! I sigh for them. "— " O foi' that warning voice ! " — that is, "O! 
how I long for that warning voice ! " — " O ! that they were wise ! " — 
that is, "0! how I wish that they were wise!" Such expressions, 
however, lose much of their vivacity, when the ellipsis is supplied. 

3. Interjections may be placed before or after a simple sentence, and 
sometimes between its parts ; but they are seldom allowed to interrupt 
the connection of words closely united in sense. 

Promiscuous Examples of False Syntax. 

Lesson I. 

It is here expected that the learner will ascertain for himself the proper form of cor- 
recting each example, according to the particular Kule or Note under which it belongs. 

There is a spirit in man, and the inspiration of the Almighty giveth 
them understanding. 

My people doth not consider. 

I have never heard who they invited. 

Then hasten thy return ; for, thee away, 
No lustre has the sun, nor joy the day. 

I am as well as when you was here. 

That elderly man, he that came in late, I supposed to be the superin- 
tendent. 

All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers, but 
his follies and vices are innumerable. 

It must indeed be confessed that a lampoon or a satire do not carry in 
them robbery or murder. 

There was more persons than one engaged in this affair. 

A man who lacks ceremony has need for great merit. 

A wise man avoids the showing any excellence in trifles. 

The most important and first female quality is sweetness of temper. 

We choose rather lead than follow. 

Ignorance is the mother of fear, as well as admiration. 

He must fear many, who many fear. 

Every one partake of hon^r bestowed on the worthy. 

The king nor the queen were not at all deceived. 

Was there no difference, there would be no choice. 

I had rather have been informed. 

Must thee return this evening ? 

Life and death is in the power of the tongue. 



MISCELLANEOUS KTTLES. 213 

I saw a person that I took to be she. 

Let him be whom he niay, I shall not stop. 

This is certainly an useful invention. 

That such a spirit as thou dost not understand me. 

" It is no more but justice," quoth the farmer. 

Lesson II. 
Great improvements has been made. 
It is undoubtedly true what I have heard. 
The nation is torn by feuds which threaten their ruin. 
The account of these transactions were incorrect. 
Godliness with contentment are great gain. 
The number of sufferers have not been ascertained. 
There are one or more of them yet in confinement. 
They have chose the wisest part. 
He spent his whole life in doing of good. 
They know scarcely that temperance is a virtue. 
I am afraid lest I have labored in vain. 
Mischief to itself doth back recoil. 
This construction sounds rather harshly. 
What is the cause of the leaves curling ? 
Was it thee that made the noise ? 
Let thy flock clothe upon the naked. 
Wisdom and knowledge is granted unto thee. 
His conduct was surprising strange. 
This woman taught my brother and I to read. 
Let your promises be such that you can perform. 
We shall sell them in the state they now are. 
We may add this observation, however. 
This came in fashion when I was } r oung. 
I did not use the leaves, but root of the plant. 
We have used every mean in our power continually. 
Pass ye away, thou inhabitant of Saphir.— Micah. 
Give every syllable and every letter their proper sound. 

Lesson HI. 
To know exactly how much mischief may be ventured upon with im- 
punity, are knowledge enough for some folks. 
Every leaf and every twig teem with life. 
I was rejoiced at this intelligence. 
I was afraid that I should have lost the parcel. 
Which of all these patterns is the prettier ? 
They which despise instruction shall not be wise. 
Both thou and thy advisers have mistaken their interest. 



214 SYNTAX. 

A idle soul shall suffer hunger. 

The lips of knowledge is a precious jewel. 

I and my cousin are requested to attend. 

Can only say that such is my belief. 

This is different from the conscience being made to feel. 

Here is ground for their leaving the world with peace. 

A man is the noblest work of creation. 

Of all other crimes willful murder is the most atrocious. 

The tribes whom I visited, are partially civilized. 

From hence I conclude they are in error. 

The girls' books are neater than the boys. 

I intended to have transcribed it. 

Shall a character made up of the very worst passions, pass under the 
name of a gentleman ? 

Rhoda ran in, and told how Peter stood before the gate. 

What is latitude and longitude ? 

Cicero was more eloquent than any Roman. 

Who dares apologize for Pizarro, — who is but another name for ra- 
pacity ? 

Lesson TV. 

Tell me whether you will do it or no. 

After the most straitest sect, I lived a Pharisee. 

We have no more but five loaves and two fishes. 

I know not who it was who did it. 

Doubt not, little though there be, 
But I'll cast a crumb to thee. 

This rule is the best which can be given. 

I have never seen no other way. 

These are poor amends for the men and treasures which we have lost, 

Dost thou know them bo} r s ? 

This is a part of my uncle's father's estate. 

Many people never learn to speak correct. 

Some people are rash, and others timid ; those apprehend too much, 
these too little. 

Is it lawful for us to give tribute to Caesar or no ? 

It was not worth while preserving any permanent enmity. 

I no sooner saw my face in it, but I was startled at the shortness of it. 

Every person is answerable for their own conduct. 

They are men that scorn a mean action, and who will exert themselves 
to serve you. 

I do not recollect ever having paid it. 

The stoics taught that all crimes were equal. 

Every one of these theories are now exploded. 



MISCELLANEOUS RULES. 215 

Either of these four will answer. 

There is no situation where he would be happy. 

The boy has been detected in stealing, that you thought so clever. 

I will meet thee there if thee please. 

He is not so sick but what he can laugh. 

These clothes does not fit me. 

The audience was all very attentive. 

Wert thou some star, which from the ruin'd roof 

Of shak'd Olympus by mischance didst fall ! — Milton. 

Lesson V. 
Was the master, or many of the scholars, in the room ? 
His father's and mother's consent was asked. 
Whom is he supposed to be ? 
He is an old venerable man. 
It was then my purpose to have visited Sicily. 
It is to the learner only, and he that is in doubt, that this assistance is 

recommended. 
There are not the least hope of his recovery. 
Anger and impatience is always unreasonable. 
In his letters, there are not only correctness but elegance. 
Opportunity to do good is the highest preferment which a noble mind 

desires. 
The year when he died is not mentioned. 
Had I knew it, I should not have went. 
Was it thee that spoke to me ? 
The house is situated pleasantly. 
He did it as private as he possibly could. 
Subduing our passions is the noblest of conquests. 
James is more diligent than thee. 
Words interwove with sighs found out their way. 
He appears to be diffident excessively. 
The number of our days are with thee. 
Like as a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth them that fear 

him. — Psalms ciii. 
The circumstances of this case is different. 
Well for us, if some such other men should rise ! 

A man that is young in years may be old in hours, if he have lost no time. 
The chief captain, fearing lest Paul should have been pulled in pieces 

of them, commanded the soldiers to go down, and to take them by 

force from among them. — Acts xxiii. 

Nay, weep not, gentle Eros ; there is left us 
Ourselves to end ourselves. — Shakspeare. 



216 SYNTAX. 

V.— ARRANGEMENT. 

The arrangement of words is an important part of 
Syntax, especially in the English language, in which, in con- 
sequence of the paucity of its inflections, the sense is made to 
depend to a very great extent upon the order of the terms. 

This lias been, in great part, already considered in the preceding rules 
and observations, but a few additional hints and illustrations are here 
inserted. 

1. The subject noun or pronoun naturally comes before the 
verb ; and the object or attribute, after it. 

For cases of inversion of the subject and verb, see Observation 1, 
Kule VI. 

Inversions of any of these are generally controlled by the 
law of emphasis, which requires an unusual position in the 
sentence for a word, phrase, or clause, which is to be made 
prominent. 

The following sentences will serve for illustration : — 

" Into the valley of death rode the six hundred." 

11 All bloodless laj the untrodden snow." 

" Victories indeed they were." 

" Silver and gold have I none." 

" When Thebes Epaminondas rears again." 

2. On the same principle, the adjective which, in the natural 
order, precedes the noun, may be made to follow it, thus : — 

" Across the meadows, fresh and green" 
Also when the adjective is encumbered with one or more 
adjuncts, thus: — 

" To whom the goblin fuU of wrath replied." 

" A man wise in his own conceit can learn but littte." 

3. The relative should be as close as possible to its ante- 
cedent, and no other word should intervene that might be 
mistaken for the antecedent. 

The following are examples of such an ambiguity : — 

" It was David, the father of Solomon, who slew Goliath." 
" Why should he keep a horse that cannot ride ? 
' ' All evils here contaminate the mind, 
That opulence departed leaves behind." 



ARKANGEMENT. 217 

4. Adverbs, and all adverbial expressions, should be placed 
as near as possible to the words which they affect. 

This is illustrated under the rule for adverbs. The principle is of 
general application to all classes of adjuncts, the position of which should 
be such as to show, with the greatest possible clearness, to what words 
they belong. The following sentence illustrates this principle, in the 
correct position of every adjunct : — " But now ye seek to kill me, a man 
that hath told you the truth which I have heard of God : this did 
not Abraham." — John viii. 

The following is a comprehensive canon for the correction of miscel- 
laneous errors in construction not specifically referred to in the foregoing 
rules and observations. 

General Rule. 

In the formation of sentences, the consistency and adap- 
tation of all the words should be carefully observed ; and 
a regular, clear, and correspondent construction should be 
preserved throughout. 

Obs. — In the foregoing pages, the principles of syntax or construction, 
are supposed to be pretty fully developed ; but there may be in compo- 
sition many errors of such a nature that no rule of grammar can show 
what should be substituted. The greater the inaccuracy, the more diffi- 
cult the correction ; because the sentence may require a change through- 
out. Sometimes the faults may be rhetorical rather than grammatical ; 
that is, they may have no reference to relation, agreement, government, 
or arrangement, but may be due to an improper selection of words or 
phrases. In that case, the application of other principles than those 
previously explained in syntax may be required. 

False Syntax. 

Example. — If I can contribute to your and my country's 
glory. 

Fobmtjee. — Not proper, because the pronoun your has not a clear and regular construc- 
tion. But, according to the General Rule, "In the formation of sentences, the consist- 
ency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed ; and a regular, clear, 
and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout." The sentence having 
a double meaning, may be corrected in two ways : thus, If I can contribute to our coun- 
try's glory — or, If I can contribute to your glory and that of my country. 

Is there, then, more than one true religion ? 
The laws of Lycurgus but substituted insensibility to enjoy 
ment. — Goldsmith. 
10 



218 SYNTAX. 

Eain is seldom or ever seen at Lima. 

The young bird raising its open mouth for food, is a natural 
indication of corporeal want. 

There is much of truth in the observation of Aseham. 

Adopting the doctrine which he had been taught. 

This library exceeded half a million volumes. 

The Coptic alphabet was one of the latest formed of any. 

Many evidences exist of the proneness of men to vice. 

To perceive nothing, or not to perceive, is the same. 

The king of France or England was to be the umpire. 

He may be said to have saved the life of a citizen ; and, con- 
sequently, entitled to the reward. 

The men had made inquiry for Simon's house, and stood be- 
fore the gate. — Acts x. 

Give no more trouble than you can possibly help. 

The art of printing being then unknown, was a circumstance 
in some respects favorable to freedom of the pen. 

Another passion which the present age is apt to run into, is 
to make children learn all things. — Goldsmith. 

He is always the severest censor on the merits of another, who 
has the least worth of his own. 

Nor was Philip wanting in his endeavors to corrupt Demos- 
thenes, as he had most of the leading men in Greece. — 
Goldsmith. 

The Greeks, fearing to be surrounded on all sides, wheeled 
about and halted, with the river on their backs. — Id. 

Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon the supplying of 
our wants ; and riches, upon enjoying our superfluities. 

To obtain a correct style requires few talents to which most 
men are not born, or at least may not acquire. 

That brother should not war with brother, 
And worry and devour each other. — Cowper. 

Such is the refuge of our youth and age ; 

The first from hope, the last from vacancy. — Byron. 

Triumphant Sylla ! could st thou then divine, 

By aught than Romans Rome should thus be laid ? — Id. 



ANALYSIS, PAESING, A^D CONSTRUCTION. 219 

VI.— EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CON- 
STRUCTION. 

Praxis V.— Syntactical. 

In the Fifth Praxis, it is required of the pupil — to analyze the sentence 
according to the method indicated under each example ; to distinguish 
the parts of speech and their classes ; to mention their modifications 
in order ; to point out their relation, agreement, or government ; 
and to apply the rule of Syntax. He should then be required to con- 
struct five additional sentences of the same character. 

Example Analyzed and Passed. 
" To "be continually subject to the breath, of slander Trill tarnish the 
purest reputation." 
Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The subject is the complex infinitive phrase, to be continually subject to the breath of 
slander ; the predicate verb is will tarnish ; the object is reputation. 

The principal part of the phrase is to be, and its adjuncts are continually, and the in- 
definite attribute, subject, which is modified by the complex adverbial phrase, to 
the breath of slander ; the principal part of this phrase is breath, which is modified 
by the, and the simple adjective phrase, of slander. 

The verb has no adjuncts ; the adjuncts of the object are the and purest. 
Pausing. — To be is an irregular neuter verb, from be, zcas, being, been ; found in the 
infinitive mood and present tense, and is, with the phrase of which it is the princi- 
pal part, the subject of the verb will tarnish ; according to Note II., under Kule 
VIII., which says, "The infinitive mood, a phrase, or a sentence, is sometimes the 
subject to a verb." 

Continually is an adverb of time, and relates to the verb to be ; according to the rule 
which says, Adverbs relate, etc. 

Subject is a common adjective, of the positive degree, compared only by means of the 
adverbs, more and most, less and least ; it is taken abstractly with the infinitive 
to be ; according to Exception 2d, under Rule II., which says, " "With the infinitive 
or a participle denoting being or action in the abstract, an adjective is sometimes 
also taken abstractly.''' 

To is a preposition, and shows the relation between subject and breath ; according to 
the rule, which says, Prepositions show the relation of things. 

The is the definite article, and relates to breath ; according to the rule, which says, etc. 

Breath is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and 
objective case, and is governed by to ; according to the rule, which says, etc. 

Will tarnish is a regular active-transitive verb, from tarnish, tarnished, tarnishing, 
tarnished ; found in the indicative mood, first-future tense, third person, and singu- 
lar number ; and agrees with its subject, the infinitive phrase, to be, etc.; accord- 
ing to Note II., under Rule VIII., which says, " The infinitive mood, a phrase, or 
a sentence, is sometimes the subject of a verb : a subject of this kind, however 
composed, if it is taken as one whole, requires a verb in the third person singular." 

Purest is a common adjective of the superlative degree, compared, pure, purer, purest; 
it relates to reputation ; according to the rule, which says, etc. 

Eeputation is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, 
and objective case ; and is governed by will tarnish ; according to the rule, which 
says, etc; 



220 SYNTAX. 

Phrases. 
I.— Subject Phrases. 

To train citizens is not the work of a day. 

To be happy without the approval of conscience is impossible. 

To have remained calm under such provocation, was a proof of remark- 
able self-control. 

To be at once a rake and glory in the character, discovers a bad disposi- 
tion and a bad heart. 

To meet danger boldly is better than to wait for it. 

To be satisfied with the acquittal of one's own conscience, is the mark of 
a great mind. 

To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect of character. 

To spring up from bed at the first moment of waking, is easy enough 
for people habituated to it. 

To laugh were want of goodness and of grace, 
And to be grave exceeds all power of face. 

II.— Object Phrases. 

Example Analyzed. 

11 Can a youth who refuses to yield obedience to his parents, expect 
to become a good or a wise man ? " 

Analysis. — This is a complex interrogative sentence. 

The principal clause is, Can a youth expect to become a good or xoise man f The de- 
pendent clause is, who refuses to yield obedience to his parents. The connective is 
10 ho. 

The subject noun of the principal clause is youth ; the predicate verb is expect ; the 
object is the infinitive phrase, to become a good or a wise man. 

The adjuncts of the subject noun are a and the dependent clause ; the verb has no ad- 
juncts : the principal part of the phrase is to become ; and its adjunct is the attri- 
bute man, which refers to the subject youth, and is modified by the adjuncts a 
good, and a wise, connected by or. 

The subject of the dependent clause is who ; the predicate verb is refuses ; the object 
is the complex infinitive phrase, to yield obedience to his parents. The principal 
part of the phrase is to yield, its adjuncts are the object, obedience, and the simple 
adverbial phrase, to his parents ; the principal part of this phrase is parents, and 
its adjunct is his. 

If you desire to be free from sin, avoid temptation. 

By the faults of others, wise men learn how to correct their own. 

In reasoning, avoid blending arguments confusedly together that are of 

a separate nature. 
He who refuses to learn how to avoid evil, may properly be deemed 
guilty of it. 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 221 

He did not oppose his son's going to sea, because he desired to remove 

him from the evil influence of bad company. 
Never expect to be able to govern others, unless you have learned how to 

govern yourself. 
He who loves to survey the works of nature, can anticipate, wherever he 

may be, finding sources of the purest enjoyment. 
He who attempts to please every body, will soon become an object of 

general indifference or contempt. 
None but the virtuous dare hope in bad circumstances. 
If ever any author deserved to be called an original, it was Shaks- 

peare. 

Ill Attribute Phrases. 

Example Analyzed. 

' ' The predominant passion of Franklin seems to have been the love 
of the useful." 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The subject is passion ; the predicate verb is seems ; the attribute is the infinitive 
phrase, to have been the love of the useful. 

The adjuncts of the subject are the, predominant, and the simple adjective phrase of 
Franklin ; the predicate has no adjuncts ; the principal part of the attribute 
phrase is to have been, and its adjunct is the attribute love, which refers to the 
subject passion, and is modified by the, and the simple adjective phrase, of the 
useful. 

[To have been is used as an adjective, and relates to passion.] 

The fire of our minds is immortal, and not to be quenched. 

Universal benevolence and patriotic zeal appear to have been the 
motives of all his actions. 

Children should be permitted to be children, and not deprived of 
amusements proper for their age. 

Was he not to live the best part of his life over again, and once more 
be all that he ever had been ? 

Criminals are observed to grow more anxious as their trial approaches. 

Knowledge is not to be received inertly like the influences of the at- 
mosphere, by a mere residence at the place of instruction. 

The great purpose of poetry is to carry the mind above and beyond the 
beaten, dusty, weary walks of ordinary life ; to lift it into a purer 
element ; and to breathe into it more profound and generous emo- 
tions. 

He seems to have made an injudicious choice, though he is esteemed a 
sensible man. 

Integrity is of the greatest importance in every situation of life. 



222 SYNTAX. 

To be useful in some degree is within the means of every one. 

To discover the true nature of comets, has hitherto proved beyond the 

power of science. 
His conduct was, under the circumstances, in very bad taste. 
The merchant was to have sailed for Europe last week. 



IV.— Adjective Phrases. 

Example Analyzed. 

"Leaning my head upon my hand, I began to figure to myself the 
miseries of confinement." 

Analysis.— This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The subject is I; the predicate verb is began ; the object is the complex infinitive 
phrase, to, figure to myself the miseries of confinement. The principal part of the 
phrase is to figure, the adjuncts of which are the simple adverbial phrase, to my- 
self, and the object miseries, which is modified by the and the simple adjective 
phrase, of confinement. 

The adjunct of the subject is the complex adjective phrase leaning my head upon my 
hand, the principal part of which is leaning, and its adjuncts, the object head, 
modified by my, and the simple adverbial phrase, upon my hand, the principal 
part of which is hand, and its adjunct, my. 

Life bears us on like the stream of a mighty river. 

Augustus had no lawful authority to make a change in the Roman con- 
stitution. 

A habit of sincerity in acknowledging faults, is a guard against commit- 
ting them. 

The atrocious crime of being a young man, I shall attempt neither to 
palliate nor deny. 

Envy, surrounded on all sides by the brightness of another's prosperity, 
like the scorpion, confined within the circle of fire, stings itself to 
death. 

The requisites for a first-rate actor demand a combination of talents and 
accomplishments not easily to be found. 

The conflicts of the world were not to take place altogether * on the 
tented field ; but ideas, leaping from the world's awakened intellect, 
and burning all over with indestructible life, were to be marshaled 
against principalities and powers. 

The ship, unable to pursue her way, 
Tossing about, at her own guidance lay. 

* Altogether is here an adverb relating to the adverbial phrase, on the tented field. 
(See Obs. 4, under Rule III.) 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 223 

V.— Adverbial Phrases. 

Example Analyzed. 

" We live in the past by a knowledge of its history, and in the future 
by hope and anticipation. " 

Analysis. — This is a compound declarative sentence, abbreviated in form, and consist- 
ing of the two coordinate clauses, We live in the past by a knowledge of its history, 
and {we live) in the future by hope and anticipation, connected by and. 
The subject of each clause is we, and the predicate verb is live. The adjuncts of the 
verb in the first clause are the simple adverbial phrase, in the past, and the com- 
plex adverbial phrase, by a knowledge of its history ; the principal part is knowl- 
edge, and its adjuncts are a and the simple adjective phrase, of its history. [The 
adjuncts of the verb in the second clause are of the same character, and may be 
analyzed in a similar manner.] 

At that hour, how vain was all sublunary happiness ! 

Abstain from injuring others, if you wish to be in safety. 

The public are often deceived by false appearances and extravagant 

pretensions. 
Day and night yield us contrary blessings ; and, at the same time, assist 

each other, by giving fresh lustre to the delights of both. 
Man's happiness or misery is, in a great measure, put into his own 

hands. 
Has not sloth, or pride, or ill temper, or sinful passion, misled you 

from the path of sound and wise conduct ? 
Man was created to search for truth, to love the beautiful, to desire the 

good, and to do the best. 
Representation and taxation should always go hand in hand. 
The statement which he made at first, he reiterated, again and again, 

without the least variation. 
Jacob loved all his sons, but he loved Joseph the best. 
There is very often more happiness in the cottage of the peasant than in 

the palace of the king. 

VI.— Explanatory Phrases. 

Example Analyzed. 

"It is useless to expatiate upon the beauties of nature to one who is 
blind." 

Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence. 
The principal clause is, It is useless to expatiate upon the beauties of nature to one, 

and the dependent clause is, who is blind. The connective is who. 
The subject of the principal clause is it ; the predicate verb is is ; and the attribute is 
tiseless. 



224 SYNTAX. 

The adjunct of the subject is the complex explanatory phrase, to expatiate upon the 
beauties of nature to one. The principal part of the phrase is to expatiate, the 
adjuncts of which are the complex adverbial phrase, upon the beauties of nature, 
and the simple adverbial phrase to one. The principal part of the former is 
beauties, and its adjuncts are the and the simple adjective phrase of nature ; the 
principal part of the latter is one, and its adjunct is the dependent adjective clause 
who is blind. 

The subject of the dependent clause is who ; the predicate verb, is ; and the attribute, 
blind ; each without adjuncts. 

It is always profitable to know our own faults and infirmities. 

It is the characteristic of a pedant to make an idle display of his 

learning. 
If what I say be not true, it is easy to convict me of falsehood. 
It is very often impossible to estimate the extent of injury which a 

careless word will produce. 
How happy had it been for him to have died in that sickness, when all 

Italy was putting up vows and prayers for his safety ! 
It is certainly in the power of a sensible and well-educated mother to 

inspire such tastes and propensities in her son as shall nearly decide 

the destiny of the future man. 
It is impossible to read a page in Plato, Tully, or any of the other emi- 
nent moralists of antiquity, without being a greater and better man 

for it. 
If we would improve our minds by conversation, it is a great happiness 

to be acquainted with persons wiser than ourselves. 
If we were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the 

contest. 
It is a miserable state of mind to have few things to desire, and many 

things to fear. 

VII.— Independent Phrases. 

Example Analyzed. 
" This proposition being admitted, I now state my argument." 
Analysis.— This is a simple declarative sentence. 
The subject is I ; the predicate verb is state; the object is argument. 
The subject has no adjuncts ; the adjunct of the verb is now ; the adjunct of the ob- 
ject is my. 
This proposition being admitted is an independent phrase ; the principal part is propo- 
sition, and its adjuncts are this and being admitted. 

Example II. 
' ' One day, I was guilty of an action, which, to say the least, was in 
very bad taste. 

Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence. 
The principal clause is, One day I was guilty of an action; and the dependent clause 
is, which, to say the least, was in very bad taste. The connective is which. 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 225 

The subject of the principal clause is I ; the predicate verb is was ; and the attribute 

is guilty. 
The adjunct of the verb is the adverbial phrase (prepositional in form), (on) one day ; 

the adjunct of the attribute is the adverbial phrase of an action. Of the latter 

phrase, action is the principal part, and its adjuncts are an and the dependent 

clause. 
The subject of the dependent clause is ichich ; the predicate verb is was; and the 

attribute, the adjective phrase in very bad taste. 
Neither has any adjuncts ; the principal part of the attribute phrase is taste ; bad 

being its primary, and very its secondary adjunct. 
To say the leant, is an independent phrase of the infinitive form. The principal part is 

to say, and its adjunct, the object least, modified by the. 

They being absent, we cannot come to a determination. 
There being mucb obscurity in the case, he refuses to decide upon it. 
To be plain with you, your conduct is very much to be censured. 
Fathers ! Senators of Rome ! the arbiters of nations ! to you I fly for 

refuge. 
The baptism of John ; was it from heaven, or of men ? 
Generally speaking, the life of all truly great men has been a life of 

intense and incessant labor. 
To give one instance more, and then I will have done with this ram- 
bling discourse. — Hazlitt. 
The great utility of knowledge and religion being thus apparent, it is 
highly incumbent upon us to pay a studious attention to them in 
our youth. 
A shoe coming loose from the fore-foot of the thill-horse, at the begin- 
ning of the ascent of Mount Taurina, the postilion dismounted, 
twisted the shoe off, and put it in his pocket. — Sterne. 
Want, and incurable disease, (fell pair !) 
On hopeless multitudes remorseless seize 
At once ; and make a refuge of the grave. 
Soldier, rest ! thy warfare o'er, 

Sleep the sleep that knows not breaking : 
Dream of battle-fields no more, 
Days of danger, nights of waking. 



Clauses, 
VIII.— Subject Clauses. 

Example Analyzed. 

' ' That it is our duty to obey the laws of the country in which we 
live, does not admit of question." 
10* 



226 SYNTAX. 

Analysis.— This is a complex declarative sentence. 

The subject is the dependent clause, That it is our duty to obey the laics of the country 
in which toe live ; the predicate verb is does admit. 

The adjuncts of the verb are not and the phrase of question. 

The subject of the dependent clause is it ; the predicate verb is is ; and the attribute 
i3 duty. 

The adjunct of the subject is the complex explanatory phrase, to obey the laws of the 
country in which we live ; the adjunct of the attribute is our. 

The principal part of the explanatory phrase is to obey, which is modified by the object 
laics, the adjuncts of which are the and the complex phrase, of the country in 
which we live. The principal part of this phrase is country, and its adjuncts are 
the and the simple adjective clause, in which we live. The subject of the clause is 
we ; the predicate verb is live, which is modified by the simple adverbial phrase 
in which. 

Obs. — It will be perceived from the example given in this exercise, 
that a complex sentence may be analyzed by treating it as a whole, 
pointing out the subject, predicate, etc., and analyzing the dependent 
clause in its proper place, as one of the principal parts, or an ad,unct to 
either ; instead of dividing the sentence immediately into the principal 
and dependent clauses, explaining their connection, and then analyzing 
them separately, as in the previous exercises. The latter method is 
preferable for beginners, but for advanced scholars should give place to 
the other, which is more logical, and easier for intricate sentences. 



That the government of our desires is essential to the enjoyment of 
true liberty, is a truth never to be forgotten. 

That it is glorious to die for one's country, is a sentiment uniformly 
cherished by all good men. 

At what period the poems of Homer were composed, has not been posi- 
tively ascertained. 

Who was the author of the Letters of Phalaris, has been the subject of 
very ingenious and learned discussion. 

That an author's work is the mirror of his mind, is a position that has 
led to very false conclusions. 

Why a man with so excellent an education, and surrounded with so 
many inducements to a virtuous life, should have fallen into habits 
of vice and dissipation, is inexplicable. 

That truth finally must prevail over error, and virtue be triumphant in 
a struggle with vice, are highly cherished sentiments among man- 
kind. 

How he was to extricate his army from so dangerous a position, baffled 
all conjecture. 

Whether Columbus was the first discoverer of America or not, is a ques- 
tion among historians. 

What can be more strange than that an ounce weight should balance 
hundreds of pounds by the intervention of a few bars of thin iron ? 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 227 

IX.— Object Clauses. 

Example Analyzed. 

' ' Children should know that it is their duty to honor their parents, to 
ask advice of them, and to observe their wishes." 

Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence. 

Tlie subject is children ; the predicate verb is should know ; the object is the depend- 
ent clause, That it is their ditty, etc. That is the connective. 

The subject of the dependent clause is it ; the predicate verb is is ; the attribute is 
duty. 

The adjuncts of the subject are the explanatory phrases, to honor their parents, to ask 
advice of them, and to observe their wishes. 

He knew that solicitations or remonstrances would avail little with the 
companions of his enterprise. 

Those who are skilled in the extraction and preparation of metals, de- 
clare that iron is everywhere to he found. 

Columbus felt that there was a continent to be discovered, and he dis- 
covered it. 

The authors of the American Revolution believed that they were in the 
service of their own, and of all future generations. 

It is interesting to notice how some minds seem almost to create them- 
selves, springing up under every disadvantage, and working their 
solitary but irresistible way through a thousand obstacles. 

Any man who attends to what passes within himself, may easily discern 
that the human character is a very complicated system. 

How can he exalt his thoughts to anything great or noble, who only 
believes that, after a short term on this stage of existence, he is to 
sink into oblivion, and to lose his consciousness forever ? 

See, Aspasio, .how all is calculated to administer the highest delight to 
mankind. 

The majority of the assembly wisely considered that to decline a cessa- 
tion, would be to refute all their professions of loyalty. 
Haply some hoary-headed swain may say, 

' ' Oft have we seen him at the peep of dawn, 
Brushing, with hasty steps, the dews away, 
To meet the sun upon the upland lawn." 

X.— Object Clauses. (Infinitive.) 

Example Analyzed. 

" Let the child learn what is appropriate for his years." 

Analysis. — This is a complex imperative sentence. The subject is thou (understood) ; 
the predicate verb is let ; the object is the infinitive clause, the child learn, etc. 
The subject noun of the dependent clause is child ; the predicate verb is (to) learn ; 



228 SYNTAX. 

the object is that (comprehended in the double relative what, equivalent to that 

which). 
The adjunct of the object is the simple adjective clause, which is appropriate for his 

years. 
The subject of this clause is which; the predicate verb, is ; the attribute, appropriate, 

modified by the simple adverbial phrase, for his pears. 

Thou think'st it folly to be wise too soon. 

In this melancholy state he commanded messengers to recall his eldest 

son, Abouzaid, from the army. 
Graves describes the steps by which Shenstone made the Leasowes be- 
come what it at last was. 
Let us all, in our mourning attire, and accompanied by our children, go 
and entreat Veturia, the mother of Coriolanus, to intercede with 
her son for our common country. 
Madame Roland heard herself sentenced to death with the air of one 

who saw in her condemnation merely her title to immortality. 
Goldsmith said to Johnson very wittily and very justly, " If you were 
to write a fable about little fishes, doctor, you would make the little 
fishes talk like whales." 
The curiosity of the Caliph being awakened to know the cause of his 
despair, he ordered Mezrour to knock at the door, which being 
opened, they pleaded the privilege of strangers to enter for rest and 
refreshment. 

See some strange comfort every state attend, 
And pride bestow'd on all, a common friend : 
See some fit passion every age supply ; 
Hope travels through, nor quits us when we die. 
On what foundation stands the warrior's pride, 
How just his hopes, let Swedish Charles decide. 

XL— Attribute Clauses 

Example Analyzed. 

"The truth is, that the most elaborate and manifold apparatus of in- 
struction can impart nothing of importance to the passive and inert 
mind." 

Analysis.— This is a complex declarative sentence. The subject is the truth ; the predi- 
cate verb is is ; the attribute is the dependent clause, The most elaborate a?id 
manifold apparatus, etc. The connective is that. 
The subject noun of the dependent clause is apparatus ; the predicate verb is can im- 
part; the object is nothing. The adjuncts of the subject noun are the, elaborate, 
manifold, and of instruction ; most is an adjunct of elaborate and manifold; the 
adjunct of the verb is the adverbial phrase to the passive and inert mind ; the prin- 
cipal part of which is mind, and its adjuncts the, and passive and inert; the ad- 
junct of the object is the simple adjective phrase, of importance. 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 229 

The crying sin of all governments is, that they meddle injuriously with 
human affairs, and obstruct the processes of nature by excessive 
legislation. 

One of the most useful effects of action is, that it renders repose agree- 
able. 

The only advantage which, in the voyage of life, the cautious had 
above the negligent, was, that they sunk later, and more suddenly. 

The characteristic peculiarity of the "Pilgrim's Progress" is, that it it 
the only work of its kind which possesses a strong human interest. 

The proper end of instruction is, not that the scholar should be able to 
repeat the thoughts of others, but that he should have the power to 
think correctly for himself. 

The physician's directions were, that the patient should travel to the 
South, that he should avoid excitement, and that he should be 
careful in diet. 

XII. — Adjective Clauses. 

Example Analyzed. 

"Whoever yields to temptation, debases himself with a debasement 
from which he can never arise." 
Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence. 
The subject nominative is he (comprehended in the double relative whoever); the- 

predicate verb is debases ; the object is himself. 
The adjunct of the subject nominative is the simple adjective clause, who yields to 
temptation ; the adjunct of the predicate is the complex phrase, with a debase- 
ment from lohich he can never arise. The principal part of the phrase is debase- 
ment, and its adjuncts are a and the simple adjective clause, from which he can 
never arise. 

The chief misfortunes that befall us in life, can be traced to some vices 

and follies which we have committed. 
Every society has a right to prescribe for itself the terms on which its 

members shall be admitted. 
There is no foundation for the popular doctrine, that a state may flourish 

by arts and crimes. 
It is necessary to combat vigilantly that favorite idea of lively ignorance, 

that study is an enemy to originality. 
Most of the troubles which we meet with in the world, arise from an 

irritable temper, or from improper conduct. 
Neither his vote, his influence, nor his purse, was ever withheld from 
the cause in which he had engaged. 

He that has light within his own clear breast, 
May sit in the center, and enjoy bright day ; 
But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts, 
Benighted walks under the mid-day sun. 



230 SYNTAX. 

No flocks that range the valley, free, 

To slaughter I condemn ; 
Taught by that power that pities me, 

I learn to pity them. 

XIII.— Adverbial Clauses. 

Example Analyzed. 

" Education, when it works upon a noble mind, draws out to view 
many latent virtues and perfections, which, without its aid, would 
never be able to make their appearance. " 

Analysis.— This is a complex declarative sentence. 

The principal clause is, Education, when it tcorks upon a noble mind, draios out to 
view many latent virtues and perfections ; and the dependent is, ~\Yhich, without 
its aid, would never be able to make their appearance. The connective is which. 

The first is a complex member ; the subject is education ; the predicate verb is draws ; 
the objects are virtues and perfections. 

The adjuncts of the verb are the adverbial clause, when it works upon a noble mind, 
out, and the simple adverbial phrase to view ; the adjuncts of the objects are 
many and latent. 

The subject of the adverbial clause is it, the predicate verb is works. The adjuncts 
of the verb are when, and the adverbial phrase, upon a noble mind. The con- 
nective is when. 

The subject of the dependent clause is which ; the predicate verb is would be ; the at- 
tribute is able. 

The adjuncts of the predicate are the phrase, without its aid, and never ; the adjunct 
of the attribute is the simple adverbial phrase, to make their appearance, of which 
to make is the principal part, and its adjunct the object appearance, modified by 
their. 

When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affects us, the sincerity 

of friendship is proved. 
When the Creator had finished his labor on our planet, his last and 

noblest work being man, he conferred on him a partnership in his 

labors. 
Loose conversation operates on the soul, as poison does on the body. 
When Education had proceeded, in this manner, to the part of the 

mountain where the declivity began to grow craggy, she resigned 

her charge to two powers of superior aspect. 
(Vhile I was musing on this miserable scene, my protector called out to 

me, "Remember, Theodore, and be wise, and let not Habit prevail 

against thee. " 
While this thought passed over my mind, I lost sight of the remotest star, 

and the last glimmering of light was quenched in utter darkness. 

The agonies of despair every moment increased, as every moment 

augmented my distance from the last habitable world. I reflected 

with intolerable anguish, that, when ten thousand thousand years 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 231 

liad carried me beyond the reach, of all but that Power who fills in- 
finitude, I should still look forward into an immense abyss of dark- 
ness, through which I sh ould still drive without succor and without 
society, farther and farther still, forever and forever. 

XIV.— Explanatory Clauses. 

Example Analyzed. 

' ' Why is it that to man have been given passions which he cannot 
tame, and which sink him below the brute ? " 

Analysis. — This is a complex interrogative sentence. 

The subject is it ; the predicate verb is is ; the adjunct of the subject is the complex 
explanatory clause, to man have been given passions which he cannot tame, and 
which sink him below the brute; the connective is that: the adjunct of the predi- 
cate is why. 

The subject noun of the explanatory clause is passions ; the predicate is have been 
given. The adjuncts of the subject are the simple adjective clauses, which he can- 
not tame, and which sink him below the brute. [Each to be analyzed as in previous 
exercises.] 

It was the fate of Dr. Bentley, that every work, executed or projected 

by him, should be assailed. 
It is surprising in what countless swarms the bees have overspread the 

far West, within but a moderate number of years. 
To tell you the why and the wherefore would take too long ; suffice it to 

say, that they hate us with a deadly hatred. 
Seeing these, I at length comprehended the meaning of those terrible 

words, ' ' Must we kill them both ? " 
It might be expected, that humanity itself would prevent them from 

breaking into the last retreat of the unfortunate. 
It is an exquisite and beautiful thing in our nature, that when the heart 
is touched and softened by some tranquil happiness or affectionate 
feeling, the memory of the dead comes over it most powerfully and 
irresistibly. 
Interesting it is to observe how certainly all deep feelings agree in this, 

that they seek for solitude, and are nursed by solitude. 
Is it because foreigners are in a condition to set our malice at defiance, 
that we are willing to contract engagements of friendship ? 
See ! and confess, one comfort still must rise ; 
'Tis this, though man's a fool, yet God is wise. 
Better for us, perhaps, it might appear, 
Were there all harmony, all virtue here ; 
That never air nor ocean felt the wind, 
That never passion discomposed the mind. 



232 SYNTAX. 



XV.— Parenthetical Clauses. 

Example Analyzed. 

"The virtuous man, it has been beautifully said, proceeds without 
constraint in the path of his duty." 

Analysis. — This is a compound declarative sentence ; composed of the simple clause, 
The virtuous man proceeds without constraint in the path of his duty, and the 
parenthetical clause, It hat been beautifully said. [Let the pupil analyze each 
clause as in the preceding exercises.] 

Obs. — Sentences of this form may often be analyzed by considering 
the parenthetical clause, the principal one, and the rest of the sentence 
dependent upon it. The mode of analysis, indicated in the example, 
is, however, preferable ; as, although the parenthetical clause is united 
in construction with the other part of the sentence, it is not necessary 
to complete the sense. 

How dangerous soever idleness may be, are there not pleasures, it may 

be said, which attend it ? 
" I leave my second son, Andrew," said the expiring miser, "my whole 

estate ; and desire him to be frugal." 
"Go forth," it had been said to Elijah, "and stand upon the mount 

before the Lord." 
"I think, boys," said the schoolmaster, when the clock struck twelve, 

" that I shall give you an extra half-holiday this afternoon." 
"You remember my garden, Henry," whispered the old man, anxious 
to rouse him, for a dullness seemed gathering upon the child, "and 
how pleasant it used to be in the evening-time ? " 
"Therefore," said he, "hath it in all confidence been ordered by the 
Commons of Great Britain, that I impeach Warren Hastings of high 
crimes and misdemeanors. " 

" Oh, no," said the Earth, " thou shalt not lie, 
Neglected and lone, on my lap to die, 
Thou fine and delicate child of the sky." 
No further seek his merits to disclose, 

Or draw his frailties from their dread abode, 
(There they alike in trembling hope repose,) 
The bosom of his Father, and his God. 



Compound Sentences. 

XVI.— Independent Clauses. 

Obs. 1. — In analyzing compound sentences, at this stage of the pupil's 
progress, the leading clause should be distinguished from the subordinate 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 233 

clause. It must, however, be understood, that the dependence of the 
latter upon the former, is logical, not grammatical, differing in this 
respect altogether from the relation of the principal and the dependent 
clause of a complex sentence, which is purely grammatical, since the 
latter is an adjunct, or used as one of the principal parts, in the princi- 
pal clause. 

Obs. 2. — Some clauses are simply connected without logical or gram- 
matical dependence. These may be called co-ordinate clauses. 

In the following examples of analysis, for the purpose of abbreviation, and in order to 
furnish the pupil with a ready method of clearly representing, in written exercises, the 
parts of a sentence and their relations, the compound clauses or members are marked 
by capitals ; the simple clauses, by numerals ; and the phrases, by small letters. When 
these are all written out in the order in which they occur, care being taken to unite in 
brackets dependent clauses contained in the same sentence or member, the character and 
composition of the sentence analyzed will be exhibited. 

According to this mode of representation, a simple sentence would, of course, have no 
numerical or literal designation ; 1 would indicate a complex sentence with a simple 
dependent clause ; 1, 2, a compound sentence, consisting of two 6imple clauses, but if 
enclosed in brackets thus [1, 2], a complex sentence containing two dependent clauses; 
A, 1, 2, B, 3, 4, a compound sentence composed of two compound members ; but A, [1, 
2] , B, [3, 4] , a compound sentence composed of two complex members, each containing 
two dependent clauses; A, 1, B, 2, a compound sentence composed of two complex 
members, each containing one dependent clause ; A, 1, 2, B, 3, a compound sentence 
composed of a compound and a complex member ; A, 1, B, 2, 3, a compound sentence 
containing a complex and a compound member ; A, B, 1, a complex sentence containing 
a complex dependent member, which itself contains a complex dependent member ; and 
so on. 

This mode of presenting to the eye the general conformation of a sentence, its mem- 
bers, clauses, etc., in their order and, partially, their dependence, will be found easy 
after the previous practice, and cannot fail to be useful. In the forms of analysis given, 
S. stands for the subject noun or pronoun without its adjuncts; P., for the predicate 
verb ; 0., for the object ; Att., for the attribute ; Ad., for adjuncts. 

It must be borne in mind by the pupil that the complete subject consists of the subject 
noun or pronoun and all its adjuncts ; and the complete predicate, of the predicate verb 
and all its adjuncts, including the object and attribute ; — that, in fact, there are but two 
parts in every sentence, each of which is separable into one primary part and adjuncts. 

Examples Analyzed. 

1. "Let him that hastens to be rich, take heed lest he suddenly 
become poor." 

Analysis.— Compound imperative sentence, consisting of 

A. (Leading) Let him that hastens to be rich, take heed ; 

1. (Subordinate) Re suddenly become poor. Connective, lest. 

A. Complex imperative member. 

S. Thou (understood) ; P. let ; 0. him that hastens to be rich take heed. (B.) 

B. Complex infinitive member. 

S. him ; P. take ; 0. heed. 
Ad. S. that hastens to be rich. (2.) 
2. Simple adjective clause. 

S. that ; P. hastens ; Ad. P. to be rich, (a.) 



234 SYNTAX. 

a. Simple adverbial phrase. 

Prin. part, to be ; Ad. rich (indirect attribute). 
1. Simple clause. 

S. he ; P. become ; Att. poor ; Ad. P. suddenly. 

2. ' ' Say not thou, ' I will recompense evil ; ' "but wait on the Lord, 
and he shall save thee." 
Analysis. — Compound imperative sentence, consisting of two co-ordinate members : 

A. Say not thou, " I will recompense evil." 

B. Wait on the Lord, and he shall save thee. Con. but. 

A. Complex imperative member. 

S. thou; P. say ; O. I will recompense evil (1) ; Ad. P. not. 

1. Simple declarative clause. 

S. I; P. will recompense ; 0. evil. 

B. Compound imperative member. 

2. Wait on the Lord. 

3. He shall save thee ; connective, and. 

2. Simple imperative clause. 

S. Thou (understood) ; P. xoait ; Ad. P. on the Lord, (a.) 
a. Simple adverbial phrase. 

Prin. part, Lord ; Ad. the. 
e. Simple declarative clause. 

S. He ; P. shall save ; 0. thee. 

If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat ; if he be thirsty, give 
him water to drink. 

If the mind were left uncultivated, though nothing else should find en- 
trance, vice certainly would. 

While riotous indulgence enervates both the body and the mind, purity 
and virtue heighten all the powers of human fruition. 

If the King were present, Cleon, there would be no need of my answer- 
ing to what thou hast just proposed. 

He seems to have made an injudicious choice, though he is esteemed a 
sensible man. 

The person he chanced to see, was, to appearance, an old, sordid, blind 
man ; but, upon his following him from place to place, he at last 
found, by his own confession, that he was Plutus, the god of riches. 

I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty, 
or give me death. 

Let any one resolve always to do right now, leaving then to do as it can, 
and if he were to live to the age of Methuselah, he would never do 
wrong ; but the common error is to resolve to act right after break- 
fast, or after dinner, or to-morrow morning, or next time ; but note, 
just now, this once, we must go on the same as ever. 

It seems easier to do right to-morrow than to-day, merely because we 
forget, that when to-morrow comes, then will be now. 
The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, 
Had he thy reason, would he skip and play ? 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 235 

Inspiring thought of rapture jet to be ! 
The tears of love were hopeless but for thee ! 
If in that frame no deathless spirit dwell, 
If that faint murmur be the last farewell, 
If fate unite the faithful but to part, 
Why is their memory sacred to the heart '? 

XVII. — Miscellaneous Sentences. 

Exa]?hples Analyzed. 

1. "Rasselas could not catch the fugitives, with his utmost efforts ; 
but, resolving to weary by perseverance him whom he could not sur- 
pass in speed, he pressed on till the foot of the mountain stopped his 
course. "—Johnson. 

Analysis. — Compound declarative sentence : 

1. Rasselas could not catch the fugitive with his utmost efforts ; 
A. Resolving to weary course. Connective, but. 

1. Simple declarative clause. 

S. Basselas; P. could catch; 0. fugitive. 

Ad. P. not, with his utmost efforts (a) ; Ad. 0. the. 

a. Simple adverbial phrase. 

Prin. part, efforts ; Ad. his and utmost. 
A. Compound declarative member. 
S. He ; P. pressed. 

Ad. S. resolving to weary by perseverance him speed (b) ; 

Ad. P. on, and till the foot of the mountain stopped his course (2). 

b. Complex adjective phrase. 

Prin. part, resolving ; Ad. to toeary speed (c). 

c. Complex objective phrase. 

Prin. part, to weary ; Ad. him (obj.) and by perseverance ; Ad. of him, whom 

speed (3). 

3. Simple adjective clause. 

S. Se ; P. could swpass ; 0. whom ; Ad. P. not and iti speed. 

2. Simple adverbial clause. 

S. foot ; P. stopped ; O. course. 

Ad. S. the, of the mountain ; Ad. P. till ; Ad. 0. his ; Connective, till. 

2. " There is strong reason to suspect that some able Whig politi- 
cians, who thought it dangerous to relax, at that moment, the laws against 
political offenses, but who could not, without incurring the charge of 
inconsistency, declare themselves adverse to relaxation, had conceived a 
hope that they might, by fomenting the dispute about the court of the 
lord high steward, defer for at least a year the passing of a bill which 
they disliked, and yet could not decently oppose." — Hacaulay. 

Analysis.— Complex declarative sentence. 
S. Reason ; P. is. 

Ad. S. strong, to suspect oppose ; (a) Ad. P. there. 

a. Complex adjective phrase. 

Prin. part, to suspect ; Ad. (object), Some able oppose ; (A) Con. that. 



236 SYNTAX. 

A. Complex object clause. 

S. Politicians ; P. had conceived ; 0. hope. 

Ad. S. Some, able Whig, and the two co-ordinate clauses, connected by but, 

Who thought offenses (B), Who could relaxation (C) ; Ad. 0. 

They might oppose (D). Con. that. 

B. Complex adjective clause. 

S. who ; P. thought ; 0. It (to be) dangerous offenses (1). 

1. Simple object clause, of the infinitive form. 

S. It ; P. to be (understood) ; Att. dangerous. 
Ad. S. to relax offenses (b). 

b. Complex explanatory phrase. 

Prin. part, to relax; Ad. (primary), at that moment, (c) and laws; (Second- 
ary), the, and against political offenses (d). 

c. Simple adverbial phrase. 

d. Simple adjective phrase, modifying laws. 

C. Complex adjective clause. 

S. who ; P. could declare ; 0. themselves (to be) adverse to relaxation (2). 
Ad. P. not, without incurring the charge of inconsistency (e). 

e. Complex adverbial phrase. 

Prin. part, incurring ; Ad. (primary), charge ; (secondary), the, and oj incon- 
sistency. 

2. Simple object clause, infinitive form. 

S. themselves ; P. to be (und).; Att. adverse ; Ad. Att. to relaxation, 

D. Complex adjective clause. 

S. they ; P. might defer ; 0. passing. 

Ad. P. by fomenting steward (f ), for at least a year (g) ; 

Ad. 0. the, and of a bill which oppose (h). 

f . Complex adverbial phrase. 

Prin. part, fomenting ; Ad. (primary), dispute, (secondary), the, and about 

steward (i). 

i. Complex adjective phrase. 

Prin. part, court ; Ad. the, and of the lord high steioard (k), 
k. Simple adjective phrase. 

g. Simple adverbial phrase. 

Prin. part, year ; Ad. a. At least, independent phrase, 
h. Complex adjective phrase. 

Prin. part, bill; Ad. a, and which oppose (3). 

8. Simple adjective clause, with a compound predicate. 

S. they ; P. (compound), disliked, and could oppose ; Con. and ; O. which. 

Ad. P. (second), not and decently. 

3. What wonder, when 

Millions of fierce encountering Angels fought 
On either side, the least of whom could wield 
These elements, and arm him with the force 
Of all their regions ? How much more of pow'r 
Army 'gainst army numberless, to raise 
Dreadful combustion warring, and disturb, 
Though not destroy, their happy native seat ; 
Had not th' Eternal King omnipotent 
From his strong hold of Heav'n high over-ruled 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 237 

And limited their might ; though numher'd such 
As each divided legion might have seem'd 
A num'rous host, in strength each armed hand 
A legion, led in fight, yet leader seem'd 
Each warrior single as in chief, expert 
When to advance, or stand, or turn the sway 
Of battle, open when, and when to close 
The ridges of grim war. — Paradise Lost, VI., 219. 
Analysis. — The first period which terminates at regions, is a compound interrogative 
sentence. 

1. What iconder (should there be) ? A. When regions ; Con. when (used 

as a conjunction). 
1. Simple interrogative clause. 
A. Compound declarative member. 

2. When millions side ; 3. The least regions; Con. whom. 

The second period, comprising the remainder of the passage, is a compound exclama- 
tory sentence. 

1. How seat ; A. Had grim war ; Con. if (understood). 

1. Simple exclamatory clause. 

S. army; P. would have wielded (understood) ; 0. power. 

Ad. S. numberless, and icarring against (numberless) army ; Ad. 0. to raise 

dreadful combustion, and disturb, though not destroy their happy native 

seat. 

A. Compound member. 

2. Had might ; B. Though war ; Con. though. 

2. Simple clause, with a compound predicate. 

B. Compound declarative member. 

3. ( They were) number 'd such ; 

C. Each divided legion icar ; Con. as (for that). 

3. Simple declarative clause. 

C. Compound declarative member. 

4. Each divided legion host ; 

5. In strength legion ; 

D. Led in fight war. No connective. 

4. 5. Simple declarative clauses. 

D. Compound declarative member. 

6. Each single warrior seemed as a leader in chief, expert war ; 

7. (He was) led in fight. Connectives (corresponsive), though and yet, 
6. Simple declarative member. 

S. Warrior ; P. seemed ; Att. leader (connected to the subject by as). 

Ad. S. each, single ; Ad. Att. a, in chief, and expert ; Ad. of expert, When io 

advance war (a). 

a. Compound adverbial phrase. 

b. When to advance ; c. when to stand ; d. when to turn the sway of battle ; 

e. when to open and when to close the ridges of grim war. 

Let the pupil be required to analyze and parse oraUy, according to the 

Praxis, the sentences in the following paragraphs, or to prepare a 

written analysis of each, according to the method, indicated in the 

above examples. 

1. Let the ambitious, whether soldiers, tribunes, or kings, reflect, 

that, if there are mercenary soldiers to serve them, and flatterers to 



238 SYNTAX. 

excuse them while they reign, there is the conscience of humanity 
afterward to judge them, and pity to detest them. — Lamar tine. 

2. Some, in their discourse, desire rather commendation of wit, in 
"being able to hold all arguments, than of judgment in discerning what 
is true ; as if it were a praise to know what might be said, and not what 
should be thought. — Bacon. 

3. If all the means of education which are scattered over the world, 
and if all the philosophers and teachers of ancient and modern times 
were to be collected together, and made to bring their combined effort; 
to bear upon an individual, all they could do would be to afford the 
opportunity of improvement. — Degerando. 

4. Dreams are the bright creatures of poem and legend, who sport on 
earth in the night-season, and melt away in the first beams of the sun, 
which lights grim Care and stern Reality in their daily pilgrimage 
through the world. — Dickens. 

5. Montaigne saith prettily, when he inquired the reason why the 
word of the lie should be such a disgrace and such an odious charge. 
Saith he, "If it be well weighed, to say that a man lieth, is as much 
to say, as that he is brave toward God, and a coward toward men." 
— Bacon. 

6. Dear sensibility ! source inexhausted of all that is precious in our 
joys, or costly in our sorrows, thou chainest thy martyr down upon his 
bed of straw, and 'tis thou who lift'st him up to heaven ! Eternal 
fountain of our feeling ! 'tis here I trace thee, and this is thy "divinity 
which stirs within me ; " not that, in some sad and sickening moments, 
" my soul shrinks back upon herself, and startles at destruction ! " (mere 
pomp of words ! ) but that I feel some generous cares beyond myself. All 
comes from thee, great— great Sensorium of the world ! which vibrates, 
if a hair of our heads but falls to the ground, in the remotest desert of 
thy creation. — Sterne. 

7. On the fourth day of creation, when the sun, after a glorious but 
solitary course, went down in the evening, and darkness began to gather 
over the face of the uninhabited globe, already arrayed in the exuber- 
ance of vegetation, and prepared by the diversity of land and water, for 
the abode of uncreated animals and man,— a star, single and beautiful, 
stepped forth into the firmament. Trembling with wonder and delight 
in new-found existence, she looked abroad, and beheld nothing, in 
heaven or on earth, resembling herself. But she was not long alone ; 
now one, then another, here a third, there a fourth resplendent com- 
panion had joined her, till, light after light stealing though the gloom, 
in the lapse of an hour, the whole hemisphere was brilliantly bespangled 
— Montgomery. 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 239 

8. To learn A, B, C, is felt to be extremely irksome by the infant, 
who cannot comprehend what it is for. The boy, forced to school, cons 
over his dull lesson because he must, but feels no amusement or satis- 
faction in it. The labor he is obliged to undergo is not small ; the pri- 
vations of pleasure and activity, he regrets still more ; and all for what ? 
To learn what he does not like ; to force into his mind words to which 
he attaches no ideas, or ideas which appear to him to be of no value ; 
[because] he cannot put them to any proper use. Youth is not aware, 
that not for present use is all this designed. The dull, laborious, but 
necessary routine, like plowing and sowing the land, is in hopes of reap- 
ing abundance, at some not very distant season. Education is not the 
end, but only the means. — Taylor. 

9. The voice of the world had whispered to Columbus that the world 
is one ; and as he went forth toward the west, ploughing a wave which 
no European keel had entered, it was his high purpose not merely to 
open new paths to islands or to continents, but to bring together the 
ends of the earth, and join all nations in commerce and spiritual life. 
— Bancroft. 

10. To a limited apprehension, it would seem as if the greater part of 
the existence here allotted us, were little more than an apprenticeship 
to the business of living ; and that, if ever we come to understand our 
authentic position and relations in the world, and how our time and 
talents might have been wisely and most effectually employed, it is at a 
stage of life, when the journey is drawing to a close, and hardly an op- 
portunity is left us to turn what we have been learning to account. 
— B. Chambers. 

11. We never, in a moral way, applaud or blame either ourselves or 
others for what we enjoy or what we suffer ; or for having impressions 
made upon us which we consider as being altogether out of our power : 
but only for what we do, or would have done had it been in our power ; 
or for what we leave undone which we might have done, or would have 
left undone though we could have done it. — Bp. Butler. 

12. Resisting or not, however, we are doomed to suffer a bitter pang 
as often as the irrecoverable flight of our time is brought home with 
keenness to our hearts. The spectacle of a lady floating over the sea in 
a boat, and waking suddenly from sleep to find her magnificent ropes of 
pearl necklace, by some accident detached at one end from its fasten- 
ings, the loose string hanging down into the water, and pearl after pearl 
slipping off forever into the abyss, brings before us the sadness of the 
case. — Be Quincey. 

13. Glowing with a vivid conception of these truths, so wonderful and 
so indisputable, let me ask, whether, among all the spectacles which 
earth presents, and which angels might look down upon with an ecstasy 



240 SYNTAX. 

too deep for utterance, is there one fairer and more enrapturing to the 
sight than that of a young man, just fresh from the Creator's hands, and 
with the unspent energies of the coming eternity wrapped up in his 
bosom, surveying and recounting, in the solitude of his closet, or in the 
darkness of midnight, the mighty gifts with which he has been endowed, 
and the magnificent career of usefulness and of blessedness, which has 
been opened before him ; and resolving, with one all-concentrating and 
all-hallowing vow, that he will live, true to the noblest capacities of his 
being, and in obedience to the highest law of his nature ! — Horace Mann. 

14. Could every man apply himself to [the] employments which are 
most suited to his capabilities, and, in his appointed calling, work only 
with a view to serviceable, sincere, and ennobling results, the measure 
of his achievements might still, perchance, fall short of his original 
aspirations ; but, being commensurate with his powers, and conformable 
to the eternal laws, it could not fail to yield him that assurance of 
security and contentment which, by necessity, proceeds from all faith- 
fulness of action. — Chambers. 

15. Where American liberty raised its first voice, and where its youth 
was nurtured and sustained, there it still lives, in the strength of its 
manhood, and full of its original spirit. If discord and disunion shall 
wound it ; if party strife and blind ambition shall hawk at and tear it ; 
if folly and madness, if uneasiness under salutary restraint, shall suc- 
ceed to separate it from that Union, by which alone its existence is made 
sure, it will stand, in the end, by the side of that cradle in which its 
infancy was rocked ; it will stretch forth its arm with whatever of 
vigor it may still retain, over the friends who gathered around it ; and 
it will fall at last, if fall it must, amid the proudest monuments of its 
glory, and on the very spot of its origin. — Webster. 

16. So live, that when thy summons comes to join 
The innumerable caravan, that moves 

To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take 

His chamber in the silent halls of death, 

Thou go not like the quarry-slave at night, 

Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed 

By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave, 

Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch 

About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. — Bryant. 

17. Of chance or change, O let not man complain, 
Else shall he never, never cease to wail ; 

For, from the imperial dome, to where the swain 
Eears the lone cottage in the silent dale, 
All feel th' assaults of Fortune's fickle gale ; 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 2-11 

Art, empire, Earth itself, to change are dooin'd : 
Earthquakes have raised to heaven the humble vale, 
And gulfs the mountain's mighty mass entomb'd ; 
And where th' At! antic rolls, wide continents have bloom'd. 

— Beattie. 

18. The One remains, the many change and pass ; 
Heaven's light forever shines, Earth's shadows fly ; 
Life, like a dome of many-colored glass, 

Stains the white radiance of eternity, 

Until Death tramples it to fragments. — Die, 

If thou wouldst be with that which thou dost seek ! 

Follow where all is fled ! — Rome's azure sky, 

Flowers, ruins, statues, music, — words are weak 

The glory they transfuse, with fitting truth to speak. — Shelley. 

19. The honey-bee, that wanders all day long 

The field, the woodland, and the garden o'er, 

To gather in his fragrant winter store, 
Humming in calm content his quiet song, 
Seeks not alone the rose's glowing breast, 

The lily's dainty cup, the violet's lips ; 

But from all rank and noisome weeds he sips 
The single drop of sweetness ever pressed 
Within the poisoned chalice. Thus, if we 

Seek only to draw forth the hidden sweet 

In all the varied human flowers we meet 
In the wide garden of humanity, 
And, like the bee, if home the spoil we bear, 
Hived in our hearts, it turns to nectar there. — A. C. Lynch. 

20. And Ardennes waves above them her green leaves, 
Dewy with Nature's tear-drops, as they pass, 
Grieving, if aught inanimate ere grieves, 

Over the unreturning brave, — alas ! 

Ere evening to be trodden like the grass, 

Which now beneath them, but above shall grow 

In its next verdure, when the fiery mass 

Of living valor, rolling on the foe, 

And burning with high hope, shall molder cold and low.— Byron. 

21. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate, 
All but the page prescribed, their present state ; 
From brutes what men, from men what spirits know ; 
Or who could suTer being here below ? 

The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, 
11 



242 SYNTAX. 

( 

Had lie thy reason, would lie skip and play ? 

Pleas'd to the last, he crops the flowery food, 

And licks the hand just rais'd to shed his blood. 

Oh blindness to the future ! kindly given 

That each may fill the circle rnark'd by Heaven, 

Who sees with equal eye, as God of all, 

A hero perish, or a sparrow fall, 

Atoms or systems into ruin hurled, 

And now a bubble burst, and now a world. — Pope. 

22. As thus the snows arise ; and, foul and fierce. 
All Winter drives along the darkened air ; 

In his own loose-revolving fields, the swain 

Disaster'd stands ; sees other hills ascend, 

Of unknown joyless brow ; and other scenes, 

Of horrid prospect, shag the trackless plain ; 

Nor finds the river, nor the forest, hid 

Beneath the formless wild ; but wanders on 

From hill to dale, still more and more astray ; 

Impatient flouncing through the drifted heaps, 

Stung with the thoughts of home ; the thoughts of horue 

Rush on his nerves, and call their vigor forth 

In many a vain attempt. — Thomson. 

23. O treacherous conscience ! while she seems to sleep 
On rose and myrtle, lull'd with syren song ; 
While she seems, nodding o'er her charge, to drop 
On headlong appetite the slacken'd rein, 

And give us up to license, unrecall'd, 
Unmark'd ; — see, from behind her secret stand, 
The sly informer minutes every fault, 
And her dread diary with horror fills. 
Not the gross act alone employs her pen : 
She reconnoiters fancy's airy band, 
A watchful foe ! the formidable spy, 
Listening, o'erhears the whisj>ers of our cainp ; 
Our dawning purposes of heart explores, 
And steals our embryos of iniquity. — Young. 

24. Look, as I blow this feather from my face, 
And as the air blows it to me again, 
Obeying with my wind when I do blow, 
And yielding to another when it blows, 
Commanded always by the greater gust ; 

Such is the lightness of you common men. — Shakspeare. 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION, 243 

25. Nature never did betray 

The heart that loved her ; 'tis her privilege 
Through all the years of this our life, to lead 
From joy to joy ; for she can so inform 
The mind that is within us, so impress 
With quietness and "beauty, and so feed 
With lofty thoughts, that neither evil tongues, 
Rash judgments, nor the sneers of selfish men 
Shall e'er prevail against us, or distrust 
Our cheerful faith that all which we behold 
Is full of blessings. — Wordsworth. 

26. O, Adam, one Almighty is, from whom 
All things proceed, and up to him return, 
If not depraved from good, created all 
Such to perfection, one first matter all, 
Endued with various forms, various degrees 
Of substance, and in things that live, of life ; 
But more refined, more spirituous, and pure, 
As nearer to him placed, or nearer tending, 
Each in their sev'ral active spheres assign'd, 
Till body up to spirit work, in bounds 
Proportioned to each kind. — Milton. 

Exercise XVIII. 

SENTENCES OF PECULIAR OR IRREGULAR CONSTRUCTION. 

The examples here given, -with the subjoined references and annotations, 
are designed to illustrate, and exercise the pupil in, the various 
Observations, Exceptions, and Notes under the Sections upon Analy- 
sis, and the Rules of Syntax. The Praxis is the same as in the 
preceding Syntactical Exercises. 

I. — Prose. 

The philosopher, the saint, or the hero — the wise, the good, or the 
great man — very often lies hid and concealed in a plebeian, which 11 a 
proper education might have disinterred and brought to light. — Addison. 

Knowest thou not this of old, since man was placed upon the earth, 
that the triumphing of the wicked is short, and the joy of the hypocrite 
but h for a moment. — Job xx., 4, 5. 

"Note V., Rule XIV. 
* Obs. 4, Rule III. 



244 SYNTAX. 

Wherefore ye needs" must be subject, not only for wrath, but also for 
conscience' d sake. — liom. xiii., 5. 

For now I see through a glass darkly ; but then, face to face* : now 
I know in part; but then shall I know even as also I am known. — 1 
Cor. xiii., 12. 

Ye have heard that it hath been said, " An eye for an eye, and a tooth 
for a tooth." f — Matt, v., 37. 

Every man should let his man-servant, and every man his maid- 
servant, being a Hebrew or an Hebrewess, go free ; that none should 
serve himself of them, to icit^ of a Jew his brother. — Jer. xxxiv., 9. 

The beautiful forest in which we were encamped, abounded in bee- 
trees; that is to say, h trees in the decayed trunks of which, wild bees 
had established their hives.— Irving. 

And this is the record of John, when the Jews sent priests and Levites 
from Jerusalem to ask him, 1 " Who art thou '? " And he confessed, and 
denied not, but confessed, "I am not the Christ." And they asked 
him, ''What then ? Art thou Elias ? " and he saith, "I am not." 
" Art thou that prophet ?" and he answered, "iVb." k — John i., 19. 

The rudiments of every language, therefore, must be given an ' a 
task, not as an amusement. — Goldsmith. 

Time we ought to consider a* 1 a sacred trust committed to us by God, 
of which we are now the depositories, and [of which] we are to render 
an account at the last. 1 " — Blair. 

True generosity is a duty as indispensably necessary as those' 1 imposed 
upon us by law. — Goldsinith. 

To teach men to be orators, is little less than to teach them to be 
'jjocts. " — Id. 

Lysippus is told that his banker asks a debt of forty pounds, and that 
a distressed acquaintance petitions for the same sum. He gives it, 
without hesitating, to the latter ; for he demands as a favor what the 
former requires as a debt. — Id. 

The laws of Eastern hospitality allowed them to enter, and the master 



c Impersonal verb, used here as au adverb, equivalent to necessarily. 

i Ob*. 5, Rule XVIII. 

« Adverbial phrase, idiomatic; or independent phrase, absolute. See page 117. 

* Explanatory clause, predicate being understood. Ubs. 4, Rule XXIV. 

6 An infinitive, equivalent to namely. Obs. 3, Defective Verbs, page 104. 
b A clause used as a conjunction, connecting appositional terms. 
! Obs. 2, Rule XIX. 

* Exception 1, Rule III. 
' Obs. 3, Rule XXV. 

»> Infinitive phrase, used as an adjective attribute. 
» Subject of are understood. Obs. 4, Rule XXV. 

* Clause adjunct of the predicate verb is told. Ob*. 3. Rule XIX. 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, ' ANT) CONSTRUCTION. 245 

welcomed tliem, like? a man liberal and wealthy. He was skillful 
enough in appearances soon to discern «J that they were no common 
guests, and spread his table with magnificence. — Dr. Johnson. 

The year before, he had so used the matter, that, what* by force, 
w hat by policy, he had taken from the Christians above thirty small 
castles. — Kaolles. 

We exhorted them to trust in God,* and to love one an other. 1 — 
J. Campbell. 

With all due respect for the calculations of men of science, I cannot 
but remember u that when most confident, they have sometimes erred. 

I could not do a better thing than to commend* this habit to my 
brethren as one closely connected with their own personal piety, and 
their usefulness in the world. — A. Barnes. 

It is a good practical rule to keep one's reading vre\\ proportioned™ in 
the two great divisions, prose and poetry. — H. Beid. 

For a prince to be reduced by villainy to my distressful circumstances,* 
is calamity enough. — Sattust. 

Who knows but? that God, who made the world, may cause that giant 
Despair may die ? — Bunyan. 

What can be more strange than, that an ounce weight should balance 
hundreds of pounds, b}' the intervention of a few bars of thin iron ? * 

This lovely land, this glorious liberty, these benign institutions, the 
dear purchase of our fathers, are ours ; ours to enjoy, ours to preserve, 
ours to transmit. a — Webster. 

The knowledge of why they so exist, h must be the last act of favoi 
which time and toil will bestow. — Bush. 

To do what is right, with unperverted faculties, is ten times c easier 
than to undo what is wrong. — Porter. 

p An adjective followed by to understood. Obs. 4, Rule XX. 

nThe infinitive with its object clause modifies enough. Obs. 2, Rule XXT. Subdivi- 
sion, 4. 

* Obs. 13, Rule XIV. 
s Obs. 2, Rule XIX. 

t Obs. 9, Rule VII. 

* Remember, an infinitive used as the object of the preposition bid. Obs. 3, Rule XXI. 
Can is auxiliary to do, understood. 

* To commend, with its adjuncts, is subject to a verb understood. Obs. 4, Rule XXV. 

* Indirect attribute. Obs. 6, Rule XIII. 

* Subject phrase, containing an infinitive object clause, used as the object of for 
(Exc. 2, Rule Y.). The structure is anomalous, equivalent to, That a prince should be 
reduced, etc. 

yBut is here a preposition, governing the following substantive clause. 

z The clause introduced by that is the subject of is, understood. Obs. 4, Rule XIII. 

» Obs. 2, Rule XXI. 

b Clause used as the object of the preposition of. 

3 A prepositional phrase, by being understood. 



246 SYNTAX. 

And lie charged tliem that they should tell no man ; d but the e more he 
charged them, so much the* more a great deal { they published it. — 
Mark vii., 36. 

For in that he himself hath suffered being tempted * he is able to suc- 
cor them that are tempted. — Hebrews xi., 18. 

It is not to innate national vanity, nor to swell a light and empty 
feeling of self-importance ; but it is, that we may judge justly of our 
situation and of our duties, h that I earnestly urge this consideration of 
our position and our character among the nations of the earth} — Webster. 

I had rather believe all the fables in the Legend, and the Talmud, 
and the Alcoran, than that this universal frame is without a mind*— 
Bacon. 

II. — Poetry. 

See the sole bliss Heaven could on all bestow, 

Which who but feels,' can taste, but thinks, can know; 

Yet, poor with fortune, and with learning blind, 

The bad must miss, the good, untaught will find. — Pope. 

Shame to mankind ! Philander had his foes ; 

He felt the truths I sing, and I, in him ; 

But he, nor I feel b more. — Young. 

So reads he nature, whom the lamp of truth 

Illuminates : — thy lamp, mysterious Word ! 

Which whoso sees, no longer wanders lost, 

With intellect bemaz'd in endless doubt, 

But runs the road" of wisdom. — Cowper. 

Yet the thought, that thou art safe, d and he ! 

That thought is joy, arrive what may to me. — Id. 

The blessed to-day e is as completely so, 

As who began a { thousand years ago.% — Pope. 

a Double object, man and the following clause. Obs. 2, Rule XIX. 

■ Exc. 1, Rule I. 

t Df-al governed by by, understood. 

e Being tempted may relate to he or be governed by in, understood. 

h Attribute clause, commencing with that. 

* Explanatory clause, adjunct of it. 

k Object clause, believe being understood. 
» Equivalent to he who only feels. 
«> Obs. 2, Rule XVII. 

* Obs. 5. Rule XIX. 

d Clause used as an adjunct of thought. 

« Blessed to-day is used as a noun, equivalent to The man who is blessed to-day. 

t Obs. 8, Rule I. 

e Independent phrase, ago being used for agone, gone, or pissed. 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONSTRUCTION. 247 

Full many a gem h of purest ray serene 

The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear ; 
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 

And waste its sweetness on the desert air. — Gray. 
Then kneeling down to heaven's eternal King, 

The saint, the father, and the husband prays ; ' 
Hope " springs exulting on triumphant wing," 

That thus they all shall meet in future days. — Bums. 
He can't natter, he ! 
An honest mind and plain ; he must speak truth ; 
An k they will hear it, so ; if not, he's plain. — Shakspeare. 
What ! 1 canst thou not forbear me half an hour? m 
Then get thee gone, n and dig my grave thyself. — Id. 
If still she loves thee, hoard that gem ; 
'Tis worth thy vanish'd diadem. — Byron. 
He calls for Famine, and the meager fiend 
Blows mildew from between his shriveVd lips,? 
And taints the golden ear. — Cowper. 

Here he had need 
All circumspection ; and we now, no less, 
Choice in our suffrage ; for on whom i we send, 
The weight of all, and our last hope relies. — Milton. 
Who wickedly is wise, or madly brave, 
Is but the T more a fool, the more a knave. — Pope. 
O God ! methinks s it were a happy life 
To be no better than a homely swain ! 
To sit upon a hill, as I do now, 
To carve out dials quaintly, point by point, 
Thereby to see the minutes how they run. — Shakspeare. 
Poor guiltless I ! and can I choose but smile^ 
When every coxcomb knows me by my style. — Pope. 

t Obs. 3, Note II., Rule II. 

* Exc. 1, Rule X. 

* Obs. 9, Rule I. 

i Obs. 14, Rule XIV. 

« Obs. 3, Rule XX. 

11 Indirect attribute. Obs. 6, Rule XIII. 

o Obs. 5, Rule XX. 

P Obs. 6, Rule V. 

<i Whom equivalent to him whom. 

r Exc. 1, Rule I. 

8 Defective Verbs, Obs. 1, page 103. 

* Infinitive, object to preposition but. Obs. 3. Rule XXI. 



248 SYNTAX. 

Me u miserable ! which way shall I fly 

Infinite wrath, and infinite despair ? — Milton. 

Ay, hut to die, v and go we know not where ; 

To lie in cold obstruction and to rot ; 

This sensible warm motion to become 

A kneaded clod ; — 'tis too horrible. — Shafapeare. 

My soul, turn from them — turn we w to survey 

Where roughest climes a nobler race display. — Goldsmith. 

Cursed be I w that did so ! All the charms 

Of Sycorax, toads, beetles, bats, light x on you ! — Shakspeare. 

Then thus my guide, in accent higher raised 

Than I before had heard him : ' ' Capaneus ! 

Thou art more punish'd, in that this thy pride 

Lives yet unquencWdi ; no torment, save thy rage, 

Were z to thy fury pain proportion'd full." — Carijs Dante. 

Yet a few days,* and thee, 
The all-beholding sun shall see no more 
In all his course ; nor yet, in the cold ground. 
Where thy pale form was laid with many tears, 
Nor in the embrace of ocean, shall exist 
Thy image. — Bryant. 



Questions for Review. 

I.— Definitions. 
Of what does Syntax treat ? — derivation of the word ? 

What is the relation of words?— the agreement of words? — the government 
of words ? — the arrangement of words ? 

II.— Rules. 

What is the design of the rules of syntax ? 
How are they classified ? 

What are the rules of Relation ? — of Agreement ? — of Government ? 
What rule relates to the form of the Infinitive Mood ? — to the use of the Sub- 
junctive Mood ? — the Independent Case ? — Conjunctions ? — Interjections ? 
What is the object of Analysis and Synthesis ? 



■ Exc, Rule XXIV., and Obs. 2, Rule XXVI. 

T Infinitive independent. Obs. 3, Rule XXI. 

w Imperative mood used in the first person. Obs., page 85. 

x Imperative, third person, plural. 

y Clause used as the object of a preposition. Obs., page 118. 

* Subjunctive mood used for the potential. 

» Independent phrase, darjs being absolute with being or pawing. 



QUESTIONS FOE REVIEW. 249 

HI. — Relation. 

What is the rule in regard to the relation of Articles ? 

What are the exceptions ? — the observations ? — the subordinate rule? ? 

"What is the rule in regard to the relation of Adjectives ? 

What are the exceptions ? — the observations '? — the subordinate rules ? 

What is the rule in regard to the relation of Adverbs ? 

What are the exceptions ? — the observations ? — the subordinate rules ? 

What is the rule in regard to the relation of Participles ? 

What are the exceptions ?— the observations ? — the subordinate rules ? 

What is the rule in regard to the relation of Prepositions ? 

What are the exceptions ? — the observations ? — the subordinate rules ? 

IV. —Agreement. 

What is the rule for the Nominative Case ? 

What are the observations ? — the subordinate rules ? 

What is the rule for Apposition ? 

What are the observations ? 

What is the rule in regard to the agreement of a verb and subject ? 

What are the observations ? — subordinate rules ? 

What is the rule for the verb, when the nominative is a collective noun ? 

What is the observation on this rule ? 

What is the rule for the verb when it has two or more nominatives connected 

by and ? 
What are the excepti'ons ? — the observations '? — the subordinate rules ? 
What is the rule for the verb, when it has two or more singular nominatives 

connected by or or nor ? 
What are the observations ? — the subordinate rules ? 
What is the rule for the agreement of verbs, when they are connected by a 

conjunction? 
What exception is there ? — observation ?— what are the subordinate rules ? 
What is the rule for the agreement of subject and attribute ? 
What are the observations ? — the subordinate rules ? 

What is the rule in regard to the agreement of a pronoun and its antecedent ? 
What are the exceptions ? — the observations ? — the subordinate rules ? 
What is the rule for the collective antecedent ? 
W T hat is the rule for antecedents connected by and ? 
What are the observations ? 

V. — GO VERNMEN T. 

To what has Government respect ? 
What parts of speech may be governing words ? 
What is the rule for the government of the possessive case ? 
What are the observations ? — the subordinate rules ? 
What is the rule for the object of a verb ? 
What are the observations ? — the subordinate rules ■? 
What is the rule for the object of a preposition ? 
What are the observations ? 
11* 



250 SYNTAX. 

What is the rule for the government of the infinitive ? 
What are the observations ? 

VI.— Miscellaneous Rules. 

What is the rule for the omission of to before the infinitive ? 
What are the observations ? 

What is the rule for the use of the Subjunctive Mood ? 
What three points are involved in this rule ? 
When only is the subjunctive mood required ? 
How is this illustrated ? 
What is the rule for the Independent Case ? 

Under what four circumstances is a noun or a pronoun independent f Illus- 
trate each. 
What other observations on this rule ? 
What is the rule for Conjunctions ? 

What exceptions are there ? — what observations ? — subordinate rules ? 
What is the rule for Interjections ?— what observations ? 

VTI — Arrangement. 

Why is Arrangement particularly important in English ? 

What is the place of the subject noun or pronoun ? — the object or attribute ? 

What principle or law controls the inversion of this order ? 

What illustrations are given ? 

What are the applications of this law to the adjective ? 

What rule is given in regard to the relative ? 

What is the rule for adverbs and adverbial expressions ? 

How does it apply to other adjuncts ? 

What General Rule is given for construction ? 



PART IV. 



PROSODY. 
Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, and 



versification. 



.—PUNCTUATION. 



Punctuation is the art of dividing composition, by 
points, or stops, for the purpose of showing more clearly 
the sense and relation of the words, and of noting the 
different pauses and inflections required in reading. 

The following are the principal points, or marks : the 
Comma [,], the Semicolon [;], the Colon [:], the 
Period [ . ] , the Dash [ — ] , the Eroteme, or ~Note of In- 
terrogation [?], the Ecphoneme, or Note of Exclama- 
tion [!], the Brackets [ ], and Curves, or Marks of Par- 
enthesis ( ). • 

Obs. — The pauses that are made in the natural flow of speech, have, 
in reality, no definite and invariable proportions. Children are often 
told to pause at a comma while the y might count one ; at a semicolon, 
one, two; at a colon, one, tioo, three ; at a period, one, two, three, four. 
This may be of some use, as teaching them to observe their stops that 
they may catch the sense ; but the standard itself is variable, and so are 
the times which good sense gives to the points. As a final stop, the 
period is immeasurable. The following general direction is as good as 
any that can be given : — 

The comma denotes the shortest pause ; the semi- 
colon, a pause double that of the comma ; the colon, 
a pause double that of the semicolon; and the period, 



252 PROSODY. 

or full stop, a pause double that of the colon. The 
pauses required by the other marks vary according to the 
structure of the sentence, and their place in it. They may 
be equal to any of the foregoing. 

The Comma. 

The comma is used to separate those parts of a sen- 
tence, which are so nearly connected in sense, as to be 
only one degree removed from that close connection which 
admits no point. 

Rule I. — Simple Sentences. 

A simple sentence does not, in general, admit the comma ; 
as, "The weakest reasoners are the most positive." 

Exception. — When the nominative in a long simple sentence is ac- 
companied by inseparable adjuncts a comma should be placed before 
the verb ; as, "The assemblage of these vast bodies, is divided into 
different systems." 

Rule II. — Simple Memp>ehs. 

The simple members of a compound sentence, whether suc- 
cessive or involved, elliptical or complete, are generally 
divided hy the coming ; as, 

1. "He speaks eloquently, and he acts wisely." 

2. " The man, when he saw this, departed." 

3. "It may, and it often does happen." 

4. "That life is long, which answers life's great end." 

5. " As thy days, so shall thy strength be." 

Exception 1. — When a relative immediately follows its antecedent, 
and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be introduced 
before it; as, "The things which are seen, are temporal *, but the things 
which are not seen, are eternal."— 2 Cor. iv., 18. 

Exception 2. — When the simple members are short, and closely con- 
nected by a conjunction or a conjunctive adverb, the comma is 
generally omitted ; as, " Infamy is vrorse.than death." — "Let him tell 
me whether the number of the stars be even or odd." 



PUNCTUATION. 253 

Rule HI. — Moke thax Two "Words. 

"When more than two words or terms are connected in the 
same construction, by conjunctions expressed or understood, 
the comma should be inserted after every one of them but 
the last ; and if they are nominatives before a verb, the 
comma should follow the last also ; as, 

1. " Who, to the enraptur'd heart, and ear, and eye, 

Teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody." 

2. " Ah ! what avails ****** 

All that art, fortune, enterprise, can bring, 

If envy, scorn, remorse, or pride, the bosom wring V " 

3. " Women are soft, mild, pitiful, and flexible ; 

Thou, stern, obdiu*ate, flinty, rough, remorseless." 

<£. " She plans, provides, expatiates, triumphs there." 

Obs. — Two or more words are in the same construction, when they 
have a common dependence on some other term. 

Rule IV.— Only Two Words. 

When only two words or terms are connected by a conjunc- 
tion, they should not be separated by the comma ; as, "De- 
spair and anguish fled the struggling soul." — Goldsmith. 

Exception 1. — "When the two words connected have several adjuncts, or 
when one of them has an adjunct that relates not to hoth, the comma is 
inserted; as, "Honesty in his dealings, and attention to his business, 
procured him both esteem and wealth." — ;t Who is applied to persons, 
or things personified." 

Exception 2. — When the two words connected are emphatically dis- 
tinguished, the comma is inserted ; as, 

" Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand." — Beattie. 
" Tis certain he could write, and cipher too." — Goldsmith. 
Exception 3. — When there is merely an alternative of words, the 
comma is inserted ; as, " We saw a large opening, or inlet." 

Exception 4. — W T hen the conjunction is understood, the comma is in- 
serted ; as, 

" She thought the isle that gave her birth, 
The sweetest, wildest land on earth." — Hoyy. 



254 PROSODY. 

Rule V. — Wokds est Pairs. 

When successive words are joined in pairs by conjunctions, 
they should be separated in pairs by the comma ; as, " Interest 
and ambition, honor and shame, friendship and enmity, 
gratitude and revenge, are the prime movers in public trans- 
actions." 

Rule VI. — Words put Absolute. 

Nouns or pronouns put absolute, should, with their ad- 
juncts, be set off by the comma ; as, "The prince, his father 
being dead, succeeded." — " This done, we parted." — " Zaccheus, 
make haste and come down." — "His prcetor ship in Sicily, what 
did it produce ? " — Cicero. 

Rule VII. — Words ra Apposition. 
Words put in apposition (especially if they have adjuncts), 
are generally set off by the comma ; as, " He that now calb 
upon thee, is Theodore, the hermit of Teneriffe." — Johnson. 

Exception 1. — When several words, in their common order, are used 
as one compound name, the comma is not inserted ; as, " Samuel John- 
son." — " Publius Gavius Cosanus." 

Exception 2. — When a common and a proper name are closely united, 
the comma is not inserted; as, "The brook Kidron." — "The river 
Don." — "The empress Catharine." — "Paul the apostle." 

Exception 3. — When a pronoun is added to another word merely for 
emphasis and distinction, the comma is not inserted ; as, "Ye men of 
Athens." — "I myself." — " Thou naming minister." — " You princes." 

Exception 4. — When a name acquired by some action or relation, is 
put in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun, the comma is not 
inserted; as, " I made the ground my bed." — "To make him king." — 
" Whom they revered as God." — " With modesty thy guide." — Pope. 

Rule VIII. — Adjectives. 
Adjectives, when something depends on them, or when 
they have the import of a dependent clause, should, with 
their adjuncts, be set off by the comma ; as, 

1. " Among the roots 

Of hazel, pendent o'er the plaintive stream, 

They frame the first foundation of their domes." — Thorn. 



PUNCT CATION. 255 
" Up springs the lark, 



Shrill-voidd and loud, the messenger of morn." — Id, 

Exception. — When an adjective immediately follows its noun, and 
is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be used before 
it ; as, 

" On the coast averse from entrance." — Milton. 

Rule IX. — Finite Verbs. 
Where a finite verb is understood, a comma is generally 
required ; as, " From law arises security ; from security, 
curiosity ; from curiosity, knowledge." — Murray. 

Rule X. — Infinitives. 
The infinitive mood, when it follows a verb from which it 
must be separated, or when it depends on something remote 
or understood, is generally, with its adjuncts, set off by the 
comma ; as, "His delight was, to assist the distressed." — " To 
conclude, I was reduced to beggary." 

" The Governor of all — has interposed, 
Not seldom, his avenging arm, to smite 
The injurious trampler upon nature's law." — Gowper. 

Rule XI. — Participles. 
Participles, when something depends on them, when they 
have the import of a dependent clause, or when they relate 
to something understood, should, with their adjuncts, be set 
off by the comma ; as, 

1. " Young Edwin, lighted by the evening star, . 

Lingering and list'ning, wander'd down the vale." — Beattie. 

2. " United, we stand ; divided, we fall." 

3. "Properly speaking, there is no such thing 'as chance." 

Exception.— When a participle immediately follows its noun, and is 
taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be used before it ; 
as, 

"A man renown 'd for repartee 
Will seldom scruple to make free 
With friendship's finest feeling. " — Gowper. 



256 PROSODY. 

Rule XII. — Adverbs. 
Adverbs, when they break the connection of a simple sen- 
tence, or when they have not a close dependence on some 
particular word in the context, should be set off by the 
comma ; as, " We must not, however, confound this gentleness 
with the artificial courtesy of the world." — "Besides, the mind 
must be employed." — "Most unquestionably, no fraud was 
equal to all this." — Lyttelton. 

Rule XIII. — Conjunctions. 
Conjunctions, when they are separated from the principal 
clause that depends on them, or when they introduce an 
example, are generally set off by the comma ; as, "But, by a 
timely call upon Religion, the force of Habit was eluded." 
— Johnson. 

Rule XXV. — Prepositions. 
Prepositions and their objects, when they break the con- 
nection of a simple sentence, or when they do not closely fol- 
low the words on which they depend, are generally set off by 
the comma; as, "Fashion is, for the most part, nothing but 
the ostentation of riches." — " By reading, we add the expe- 
rience of others to our own." 

Rule XV. — Interjections. 
Interjections are sometimes set off by the comma ; as, 
" For, lo, I will call all the families of the kingdoms of the 
north." — Jeremiah i., 15. 

Rule XVI. — Words Repeated. 
A word emphatically repeated, is generally set off by the 
comma ; as, " Happy, happy, happy pair ! " — Dryden. " Ah ! 
no, no, no." — Id. 

Rule XVH. — Dependent Quotations. 
A quotation or observation, when it is introduced by a 
verb (as, say, reply, and the like), is generally separated 



PUNCTUATION. 257 

from the rest of the sentence by the comma ; as, " 'The book 
of nature/ said he, 'is open before thee.'" — "I say unto all, 
Watch." 

The Semicolon. 

The semicolon is used to separate those parts of a 
compound sentence, which are neither so closely connected 
as those which are distinguished by the comma, nor so 
little dependent as those which require the colon. 

Rule I. — Compound Members. 

When several compound members, some or all of which 
require the comma, are constructed into a period, they are 
generally separated by the semicolon : as, " In the regions in- 
habited by angelic natures, unmingled felicity forever blooms ; 
joy flows there with a perpetual and abundant stream, nor 
needs any mound to check its course." — Carter. 

Rule II. — Simple Members. 

When several simple members, each of which is complete 
in sense, are constructed into a period ; if they require a pause 
greater than that of the comma, they are usually separated by 
the semicolon : as, " Straws swim upon the surface ; but 
pearls he at the bottom." — Murray. 

" A longer care man's helpless kind demands ; 
That longer care contracts more lasting bands." — Pope. 

Rule HL — Apposition, Etc. 

Words in apposition, in disjunct pairs, or in any other con- 
struction, if they require a pause greater than that of the 
comma, and less than that of the colon, may be separated by 
the semicolon : as, " There are five moods ; the infinitive, the 
indicative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the impera- 
tive." 



258 PKOSODY. 

The Colon. 

The colon is used to separate those parts of a com- 
pound sentence, which are neither so closely connected as 
those which are distinguished by the semicolon, nor so 
little dependent as those which require the period. 

Rule I. — Additional Remarks. 
"When the preceding clause is complete in itself, but is fol- 
lowed by some additional remark or illustration, especially if 
no conjunction is used, the colon is generally and properly in- 
serted ; as, " Avoid evil doers : in such society an honest man 
may become ashamed of himself." — " See that moth fluttering 
incessantly around the candle : man of pleasure, behold thy 
image. " — Karnes. 

Rule II. — Greater Pauses. 
When the semicolon has been introduced, and a still greater 
pause is required within the period, the colon should be em- 
ployed : as, " Princes have courtiers, and merchants have 
partners ; the voluptuous have companions, and the wicked 
have accomplices : none but the virtuous can have friends." 

Rule HE. — Independent Quotations. 
A quotation introduced without dependence on a verb or a 
conjunction, is generally preceded bv the colon ; as, " In his 
last moments he uttered these words : ' I fall a sacrifice to sloth 
and luxury.'" 

The Period. 

The period, or full Stop, is used to mark an entire 
and independent sentence, whether simple or compound. 

Rule I. — Distinct Sentences. 
When a sentence is complete in respect to sense, and inde- 
pendent in respect to construction, it should be marked with 



PUNCTUATION. 259 

the period ; as, "Every deviation from truth is criminal. Ab- 
hor a falsehood. Let your words be ingenuous. Sincerity 
possesses the most powerful charm." 

Rule II. — Allied Sentences. 
The period is often employed between two sentences which 
have a general connection, expressed by a personal pronoun, a 
conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb ; as, " The selfish man 
languishes in his narrow circle of pleasures. They are con- 
fined to what affects his own interests. He is obliged to 
repeat the same gratifications, till they become insipid. But 
the man of virtuous sensibility moves in a wider sphere of 
felicity. " — Blair. 

Rule HI. — Abbreviations. 
The period is generally used after abbreviations, and very 
often to the exclusion of other points ; but, as in this case it 
is not a constant sign of pause, other points may properly 
follow it, if the words written in full would demand them ; as, 
A.D. for Anno Domini. — Pro tern, for pro tempore. — Ult. for 
ultimo. — i. e. for id est. 

" Consult the statute ; ' quart.' I think, it is, 

'Edwardi sext.,' or c prim. et quint. Eliz.'" — Pope. 

The Dash. 

The dash is mostly used to denote an unexpected or 
emphatic pause of variable length ; but sometimes it is a 
sign of faltering ; sometimes, of omission : if set after an- 
other sign or pause, it usually lengthens the interval. 

Rule I. — Abrupt Pauses. 
A sudden interruption or transition should be marked with 
the dash ; as, " 'I must inquire into the affair, and if — 'And 
if J 1 interrupted the farmer." 

"Here lies the great — false marble, where? 
Nothing but sordid dust lies here." — Young. 



200 PROSQDY. 

Rule n. — Emphatic Pauses. 
To mark a considerable pause, greater than the structure 
of the sentence or the points inserted would seem to require, 
the dash may be employed ; as, 

1. "And now they part — to meet no more." 

2. "Revere thyself ; — and yet thyself despise." 

3. "Behold the picture ! — Is it like ? — Like whom ? " 

Rule III. — Faulty Dashes. 
Dashes needlessly inserted, or substitued for other stops 
more definite, are in general to be treated as errors in punc- 
tuation. 

Example : " — You shall go home directly, Le Fevre, said my uncle 
Toby, to my house, — and we '11 send for a doctor to see what's the mat- 
ter, — and we '11 have an apothecary, — and the corporal shall he your 
nurse ;— and I '11 be your servant, Le Fevre." — Sterne. 

Better thus: " ; You shall go home directly, Le Fevre,' said my 
uncle Toby, ' to my house ; and we'll send for a doctor to see what's the 
matter ; and we'll have an apothecary : and the corporal shall be your 
nurse : and I'll be your servant, Le Fevre.' " 

The Eroteme. 

The eroteme, or note of interrogation! is used 
to designate a question. 

Rule I. — Questions Direct. 
Questions expressed directly as such, if finished, should 
always be followed by the note of interrogation ; as, 
" In life, can love be bought with gold ? 
Are friendship's pleasures to be sold?" — Johnson. 

Rule II. — Questions United. 
When two or more questions are united in one compound 
sentence, the comma or semicolon is sometimes placed be- 
tween them, and the note of interrogation, after the last only ; 
as, 

" Truths would you teach, or save a sinking land ? 
All fear, none aid you, and few understand." — Pope. 



PUNCTUATION. 261 

Rule EH. — Questions Indirect. 

When a question is mentioned, but not put directly as a 
question, it loses both the quality and the sign of interroga- 
tion ; as, "The Cyprians asked me why I wept" — Murray. 

The Ecphoneme. 

The ecphoneme, or note of exclamation, is 

used to denote a pause with some strong or sudden emo- 
tion of the mind ; and, as a sign of great wonder, it may 
be repeated. [ ! ! ! ] 

Rule I. — Interjections, etc. 

Interjections, and other expressions of great emotion, are 
generally followed by the note of exclamation ; as, 

" O ! let me listen to the words of life ! " — Thomson. 

Rule II. — Invocations. 

After an earnest address or solemn invocation, the note of 
exclamation is usually preferred to any other point; as, 
" Whereupon, O king Agrippa ! I was not disobedient unto 
the heavenly vision." — Acts xxvi, 19. 

Rule HT. — Exclamatory Questions. 

Words uttered with vehemence in the form of a question, 
but without reference to an answer, should be followed by 
the note of exclamation ; as, " How madly have I talked ! " — 
Young, 

The Curves. 

The curves, or marks of parenthesis, are used 
to distinguish a clause or hint that is hastily thrown in 
between the parts of a sentence to which it does not 
properly belong ; as, 

" To others do (the law is not severe) 
What to thyself thou vishest to be done.*' — Ikattie. 



262 PROSODY. 

Obs. — The incidental clause should he uttered in a lower tone, and 
faster than the principal sentence. It always requires a pause as great 
as that of a comma, or greater. 

Rule I. — The Paeenthesis. 
A clause that breaks the unity of a sentence too much to be 
incorporated with it, and only such, should be enclosed as a 
parenthesis ; as, 

" Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue alone is happiness below." — Pope. 

Rule II. — Included Points. 
The curves do not supersede other stops ; and, as the paren- 
thesis terminates with a pause equal to that which precedes it, 
the same point should be included, except when the sentences 
differ in form ; as, 

1. " Man's thirst of happiness declares it is : 

(For nature never gravitates to nought :) 

That thirst unquench'd, declares it is not here." — Young. 

2. " Night visions may befriend : (as sung above :) 

Our waking dreams are fatal. How I dreamt 
Of things impossible ! (could sleep do more ?) 
Of joys perpetual in perpetual change." — Young. 

Other Marks. 

There are also several other marks, which are occasion- 
ally used for various purposes, as follow : — 

1. [ ' ] The Apostrophe usually denotes either the possessive case 
of a noun, or the elision of one or more letters of a word; as, "The 
girl's regard to her parents' advice." — 'gan, lov'd, e'en, thro' ; for began, 
loved, even, through. 

2. [ - ] The Hyphen connects the parts of many compound words, 
especially such as have two accents ; as, ever-living. It is also frequently 
inserted where a word is divided into syllables ; as, con-tem-plate. 
Placed at the end of a line, it shows that one or more syllables of a word 
are carried forward to the next line. 



PUNCTUATION. 263 

3. ["] The Diaeresis, or Dialysis, placed over either of two 
contiguous vowels, shows that they are not a diphthong ; as, Danae, 
aerial 

4. [/ ] The Acute Accent marks the syllable which requires the 
principal stress in pronunciation ; as, equal, equality. It is sometimes 
used in opposition to the grave accent, to distinguish a close or short 
vowel; as, " Fancy : " or to denote the rising inflection of the voice ; 
as, " Is it he? " 

5. [ \] The Grave Accent is used in opposition to the acute, to 
distinguish an open or long vowel; as, " Favor ;" (Murray :) or to de- 
note the falling inflection of the voice ; as, " Yes it is he." 

6. [a ] The Circumflex generally denotes either the broad sound 
of a, or an unusual and long sound given to some other vowel ; as in 
air, care, ere, there, heir, urn, bum. 

7. [ w ] The Breve, or Stenotone, is used to denote either a close 
vowel or a syllable of short quantity ; as, raven, to devour. 

8. ["] The Macron, or Macrotone, is used to denote either an 
open vowel or a syllable of long quantity ; as, raven, a bird. 

9. [ ] or [****] The Ellipsis, denotes the omission of some 

letters or words ; as, K—g, for king. 

10. [ A ] The Caret, used only in writing, shows where to insert 
words or letters that have been accidentally omitted. 

11. [ — i^s] The Brace serves to unite a triplet, or to connect several 
terms with something to which they are all related. 

12. [§] The Section marks the smaller divisions of a book or 
chapter ; and, with the help of numbers, serves to abridge references. 

13. [Tf] The Paragraph (chiefly used in the Bible) denotes the 
commencement of a new subject. The parts of discourse which are 
called paragraphs are, in general, sufficiently distinguished by begin- 
ning a new line, and carrying the first word a little forward or backward. 

14. [""] The Cuiliemets, or Quotation Points, distinguish 
words that are taken from another author or speaker. A quotation 
within a quotation is marked with single points, which, when both are 
employed, are placed within the others. 

15. [[]] The Crotchets, or Brackets, generally enclose some cor- 
rection or explanation, or the subject to be explained; as, "He [the 
speaker] was of a different opinion." 

16. [SUP] The Index, or Hand, points out something remarkable, 
or what the reader should particularly observe. 

17. [*] The asterisk, or star, [f] the obelisk, or dagger, 
[X] the diesis, or double dagger, and [ J ] the parallels, refer 



264 PROSODY. 

to marginal notes. The section [§] and the paragraph fT], 
are also often used for marks of reference, the former being usuallv 
applied to the fourth, and the latter to the sixth, note on a page ; for, 
by the usage of printers, these signs are now commonly introduced in 
the following order : 1*, 2 f, 3J, 4 £, of, 6f, 7**, 8 ft, etc. When 
many references are to be made, the small letters of the alphabet, or the 
numerical figures, in their order, may be conveniently used for the 
same purpose. 

18 - [***] Th e asterism, or three stars, a sign not very often 
used, is placed before a long or general note, to mark it as a note, with- 
out giving it a particular reference. 

19. [q] The cedilla is a mark borrowed from the French, by 
whom it is placed under the letter c, to give it the sound of * before a 
or o; as, in the words, "facade" " Ale neon." It is also attached to 
other letters, to denote their soft sounds : as, ch as tJi ; s as z ; x as gz. 

For oral exercises in punctuation, the teacher may select any well-pointed book, to 
which the foregoing rules and explanations may be applied by the pupil. An application 
of the principles of punctuation, either to points rightly inserted, or in the correction of 
errors, is as easy a process as ordinary syntactical parsing or correcting : and, in propor- 
tion to the utility of these principles, as useful. The exercise, in relation to correct 
pointing, consists in reading some passage, in successive parts, according to its points; 
naming the latter as they occur ; an I repeating the rules or doctrines of punctuation, as 
the reasons for the marks employed. Written exercises are given below. 

"Exercises in Punctuation. 
I.— The Comma. 

Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma where it is 
required. 

Rule I. 

The dogmatist's assurance is paramount to argument. 
The whole course of his argumentation comes to nothing. 
The fieldmouse builds her garner under ground. 

Exceptions. 
One of the arts that contribute most to the cultivation of the human 

mind is the art of language. 
To remain insensible to such provocation is apathy. 
He who strives to injure others cannot be happy. 

Rule II. 

I was eyes to the blind and feet was I to the lame. 
They are gone but the remembrance of them is sweet. 



PUNCTUATION. 265 

He has passed it is likely through varieties of fortune. 
The mind though free has a governor within itself. 
They I doubt not oppose the bill on public principles. 
Be silent be grateful and adore. 

He is an adept in language who always speaks the truth. 
The race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong. 

Exception*. 

1. He that has far to go should not hurry. 

Hobbes believed the eternal truths which he opposed. 
Feeble are all pleasures in which the heart has no share. 

2. A good name is better than precious ointment. 
Thinkst thou that duty shall have dread to speak ? 
The spleen is seldom felt where Flora reigns. 

Rule III. 
The city army court espouse my cause. 
Wars pestilences and diseases are terrible instructors. 
Walk daily in a pleasant airy and umbrageous garden. 
Wit spirits faculties but make it worse. 
Men wives and children stare cry out and run. 

Rule IV. 
Hope and fear are essentials in religion. 
Praise and adoration are perfective of our souls. 
We know bodies and their properties most perfectly. 
Satisfv yourselves with what is rational and attainable. 



mons. 

1. God will rather look to the inward motions of the mind than to the 

outward form of the body. 
Gentleness is unassuming in opinion and temperate in zeal. 

2. He has experienced prosperity and also adversity. 
All sin essentially is and must be mortal. 

3. One person is chosen chairman or moderator. 
Duration or time is measured by motion. 
The governor or viceroy is chosen annually. 

4. Reflection reason still the ties improve. 

His neat plain parlor wants our modern style. 

Rule V. 
I inquired and rejected consulted and deliberated. 

Seed-time and harvest cold and heat summer and winter day and night 
shall not oease. 
13 



266 PROSODY. 

Rule VI. 

The night being dark they did not proceed. 

There being no other coach we had no alternative. 

Remember my son that human life is the journey of a day 

All circumstances considered it seems right. 

He that overcometh to him will I give power. 

Your land strangers devour it in your presence. 

Ah sinful nation a people laden with iniquity ! 

With heads declin'd ye cedars homage pay ; 

Be smooth ye rocks ye rapid floods give way ! 

Rule VII. 

Now Philomel sweet songstress charms the night. 

'Tis chanticleer the shepherd's clock announcing day 

The evening star love's harbinger appears. 

The queen of night fair Dian smiles serene. 

There is yet one man Micaiah the son of Imlah. 

Our whole compar" man by man ventured down. 

As a work of wit the Dunciad has few equals. 

In the same temple the resounding wood 
All vocal beings hymned their equal God 

Exceptions. 

1. The last king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus. 
Bossuet highly eulogizes Maria Theresa of Austria. 

2. For he went and dwelt by the brook Cherith. 
Remember the example of the patriarch Joseph. 

3. I wisdom dwell with prudence. 

Ye fools be ye of an understanding heart. 

I tell you that which you yourselves do know. 

4. I crown thee king of intimate delights. 

I count the world a stranger for thy sake. 
And this makes friends such miracles below. 
God has pronounced it death to taste that tree. 
Grace makes the slave a freeman. 

Rule VIII. 

Deaf with the noise I took my hasty flight. 

Him piteous of his youth soft disengage. 

I played a while obedient to the fair. 

Love free as air spreads his light wings and flies. 
Then active still and unconfined his mind 
Explores the vast extent of ages past. 



PUNCTUATION. 267 

But there is yet a liberty unsung 
By poets and by senators unpraised. 

Exceptions. 
I will marry a wife beautiful as the Houries. 
He was a man able to speak upon doubtful questions. 
These are the persons anxious for the change. 
Are they men worthy of confidence and support ? 

Rule IX. 

Poverty wants some things ; avarice all things. 

Honesty has one face ; flattery two. 

One king is too soft and easy ; an other too fiery. 

Mankind's esteem they court ; and he his own : 

Theirs the wild chase of false felicities ; 

His the compos'd possession of the true. 

Rule X. 

My desire is to live in peace. 

The great difficulty was to compel them to pay their debts. 

To strengthen our virtue God bids us trust in him. 

I made no bargain with you to live always drudging. 

To sum up all her tongue confessed the shrew. 

To proceed lay own adventure was still more laughable. 
We come not with design of wasteful prey 
To drive the country force the swains away. 

Rule XI. 
Having given this answer he departed. 
Some sunk to beasts find pleasure end in pain. 
Eased of her load subjection grows more light. 
Death still draws nearer never seeming near. 
He lies full low gored with wounds and weltering in his blood. 
Kind is fell Lucifer compared to thee. 
Man considered in himself is helpless and wretched. 
Like scattered down by howling Eurus blown. 
He with wide nostrils snorting skims the wave. 
Youth is properly speaking introductory to manhood. 

Exceptions. 
He kept his eye fixed on the country before him. 
They have their part assigned them to act. 
Years will repair not the injuries done by him. 



268 PROSODY. 

Rule XTT. 
Yes we both were philosophers. 
However providence saw fit to cross our design. 
Besides I know that the eye of the public is upon me. 
The fact is certainly much otherwise. 
For nothing surely can be more inconsistent. 

Rule XIII. 

For in such retirement the soul is strengthend. 
It engages our desires ; and in some degree satisfies them. 
But of every Christian virtue piety is an essential part. 
The English verb is variable ; as love lovest loves. 

Rule XIV. 
In a word charity is the soul of social life. 
By the bowstring I can repress violence and fraud. 
Some by being too artful forfeit the reputation of probity. 
With regard to morality I was not indifferent . 

Rule XV. 

Lo earth receives him from the bending skies ! 
Behold I am against thee O inhabitant of the valley ! 

Rule XVI. 

I would never consent never never never. 
His teeth did chatter chatter chatter still. 
Come come come come — to bed to bed to bed. 

Rule XVII. 
He cried " Cause every man to go out from me.-' 
" Almet " said he " remember what thou hast seen." 
I answered " Mock not thy servant who is but a worm before thee." 

II. — The Semicolon. 

Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma and the semi- 
colon where they are required. 

Rule I. 
"Man is weak" answered his companion "knowledge is more than 

equivalent to force." 
To judge rightly of the present we must oppose it to the past for all 

judgment is comparative and of the future nothing can be known. 
"Content is natural wealth " says Socrates to which I shall add " luxury 

is artificial poverty." 



PUNCTUATION. 269 

Converse and love mankind miglit strongly draw- 
When love was liberty and nature law. 

Rule II. 
Be wise to-day 'tis madness to defer. 
The present all their care the future his. 
Wit makes an enterpriser sense a man. 
Ask thought for joy grow rich and hoard within. 
Song soothes our pains and age has pains to soothe. 
Here an enemy encounters there a rival supplants him. 
Our answer to their reasons is No to their scoffs nothing. 

Rule in. 
In Latin there are six cases namely the nominative the genitive the 

dative the accusative the vocative and the ablative. 
Most English nouns form the plural by adding s as boy boys nation 

nations king kings bay bays. 
Bodies are such as are endued with a vegetable soul as plants a sensitive 

soul as animals or a rational soul as the body of man. 

III.— The Colon. 

Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma, the semi- 
colon, and the colon where they are required. 

Rule I. 

Death wounds to cure we fall we rise we reign. 
Bliss ! — there is none but unprecarious bliss. 
That is the gem sell all and purchase that. 
Beware of usurpation God is the judge of all. 

Rule II. 
I have the world here before me I will review it at leisure surely hap- 
piness is somewhere to be found. 
A melancholy enthusiast courts persecution and when he cannot obtain 
it afflicts himself with absurd penances but the holiness of St. Paul 
consisted in the simplicity of a pious life. 

Observe his awful portrait and admire 
Nor stop at wonder imitate and live. 

Rule in. 

Such is our Lord's injunction " Watch and pray." 

He died praying for his persecutors ' ' Father forgive them they know 

not what they do." 
On his cane was inscribed this motto " Festina lente," 



270 PROSODY. 



IV.— The Period. 

Copy the folloicing sentences, and insert the comma, the semi- 
colon, the colon, and the period, where they are required. 

Rule I. 

Then appeared the sea and the dry land the mountains rose and the 
rivers flowed the sun and moon began their course in the skies 
herbs and plants clothed the ground the air the earth and the 
waters were stored with their respective inhabitants at last man was 
made in the image of God 

In general those parents have most reverence who most deserve it for 
he that lives well cannot be despised 

Rule II. 
Civil accomplishments frequently give rise to fame but a distinction is 
to be made between fame and true honor the statesman the orator 
or the poet may be famous while yet the man himself is far from 
being honored 

Rule III. 
Glass was invented in Eng by Benalt a monk A D 664 
The Roman Era U C commenced B C 753 
Here is the Literary Life of S T Coleridge Esq 

V.— The Dash. 

Copy the following sentences, and insert the dash, and such other 
points as are required. 

Rule I. 
You say famous very often and I don't know exactly what it means a 

famous uniform famous doings What does famous mean 
O why famous means Now don't you know what fa mous means It means 
It is a word that people say It is the fashion to say it It means it 
means famous 

Rule II. 
But this life is not all there is there is full surely another state abiding 
us And if there is what is thy prospect O remorseless obdurate 
Thou shalt hear it would be thy wisdom to think thou now hearest 
the sound of that trumpet which shall awake the dead Return 
yet return to the Father of mercies and live 

The future pleases Why The present pains 
But that's a secret yes which all men know 



PUNCTUATION. 271 

VI.— Note of Interrogation. 

Copy the following sentences, and insert the note of interrogation, 

and such other points as are required. 

Rule I. 

Does nature bear a tyrant's breast 

Is she trie friend of stern control 
Wears she the despot's purple vest 
Or fetters she the free-born soul 
Why should a man whose blood is warni within 
Sit like his grandsire cut in alabaster 
Who art thou courteous stranger and from whence 
Why roam thy steps to this abandon'd dale 

Rule II. 

Who bid the stork Columbus-like explore 
Heavens not his own and worlds unknown before 
Who calls the council states the certain day 
Who forms the phalanx and who points the way 

Rule III. 
Ask of thy mother Earth why oaks are made 
Taller and stronger than the weeds they shade 
* They asked me who I was and whither I was going 

VIL— Note of Exclamation. 

Copy the following sentences, and insert the note of exclamation, 

and such other points as are necessary. 

Rule I. 

Alas how is that rugged heart forlorn 
Behold the victor vanquished by the worm 
Bliss sublunary bliss proud words and vain 

Rule II. 
Popular Applause what heart of man 
Is proof against thy sweet seducing charms 
More than thy balm O Gilead -heals the wound 

Rule in. 

How often have I loitered o'er thy green 
Where humble happiness endear'd each scene 
What black despair what horror fills his heart 



272 PROSODY. 

VIII.— Marks of Parenthesis. 

Copy thefoUowing sentences, and insei't the marks of parenthe- 
sis, and such other points as are necessary. 

Rule I. 

And all the question wrangle e'er so long 

Is only this If God has placed him wrong 

And who what God foretells who speaks in things 

Still louder than in words shall dare deny 

Rule II. 

Say was it virtue more though Heav'n ne'er gave 
Lamented Digby sunk thee to the grave 
Where is that thrift that avarice of time 
glorious avarice thought of death inspires 
And oh the last last what can words express 
Thought reach the last last silence of a friend 

IX.— Promiscuous. 

Copy Vie following sentences, and insert the points which they require. 

As one of them opened his sack he espied his money 

They cried out the more exceedingly Crucify him 

The soldiers counsel was to kill the prisoners 

It is my son's coat an evil beast hath devoured him 

Peace of all worldly blessings is the most valuable 

By this time the very foundation was removed 

The only words he uttered were I am a Roman citizen 

Some distress either felt or feared gnaws like a worm 

How then must I determine Have I no interest If I have nut I am sta- 
tioned here to no purpose Harris 

In the fire the destruction was so swift sudden vast and miserable as to 
have no parallel in story 

Dionysius the tyrant of Sicily was far from being happy 

I ask now Verres what thou hast to advance 

Excess began and sloth sustains the trade 

Fame can never reconcile a man to a death bed 

They that sail on the sea tell of the danger 

Be doers of the word and not hearers only 

The storms of wint'ry time will quickly pass 

Here hope that smiling angel stands 

Disguise I see thou art a wickedness 



PUNCTUATION. 273 

There are no tricks in plain and simple faith 

True love strikes root in reason passion's foe 

Two gods divide them all Pleasure and Gain 

I am satisfied My son has done his duty 

Remember Almet the vision which thou hast seen 

I beheld an enclosure beautiful as the gardens of paradise 

The knowledge which I have received I will communicate 

But I am not yet happy and therefore I despair 

Wretched mortals said I to what purpose are you busy 

Bad as the world is respect is always paid to virtue 

In a word he views men in the clear sunshine of charity 

This being the case I am astonished and amazed 

Yet at the same time the man himself undergoes a change 

You heroes regard nothing but glory 

Take care lest while you strive to reach the top you fall 

Proud and presumptuous they can brook no opposition 

Nay some awe of religion may still subsist 

Then said he Lo I come to do thy will God 

As for me behold I am in your hand 

Now I Paul myself beseech you 

He who lives always in public cannot live to his own soul whereas he 
who retires remains calm 

Therefore behold I even I will utterly forget you 

This text speaks only of those to whom it speaks 

Yea he warmeth himself and saith Aha I am warm 

King Agrippa believest thou the prophets 

To whom can riches give repute or trust 
Content or pleasure but the good and just Pope 
To him no high no low no great no small 
He fills he bounds connects and equals all Id 
Reason's whole pleasure all the joys of sense 
Lie in three words health peace and competence Id 

Not so for once indulg'd they sweep the main 
Deaf to the call or hearing hear in vain Anon 

Say will the falcon stooping from above 

Smit with her varying plumage spare the dove Pope 

Throw Egypt's by and offer in its stead 

Offer the crown on Berenice's head Id 

Falsely luxurious will not man awake 

And springing from the bed of sloth enjoy 

The cool the fragrant and the silent hour Thomson 



274 PROSODY. 

Yet thus it is nor otherwise can be 

So far from aught romantic what I sing Young 

Thyself first know then love a self there is 

Of virtue fond that kindles at her charms Id 

How far that little candle throws his beams 

So shines a good deed in a naughty world Shakspeare 

You have too much respect upon the world 

They lose it that do buy it with much care Id 

How many things by season season'd are 

To their right praise and true perfection Id 

Canst thou descend from converse with the skies 

And seize thy brother's throat for what a clod Young 



-UTTERANCE. 



Utterance is the art of vocal expression. It includes 
the principles of pronunciation and elocution. 

Pronunciation. 

Pronunciation, as distinguished from elocution, is 
the utterance of words taken separately. 

Pronunciation requires a knowledge of the just powers 
of the letters in all their combinations, and of the force 
and seat of the accent. 

The just powers of the letters are those sounds which 
are given to them by the best readers. 

Accent is the peculiar stress which we lay upon some 
particular syllable of a word, whereby that syllable is distin- 
guished from the rest ; as, grdm-mar, gram-md-ri-an. 

Every word of more than one syllable, has one of its syllables ac- 
cented. 

When the word is long, for the sake of harmony or distinctness, we 
often give a secondary or less forcible accent to another syllable ; as, to 
the last of Um-per-a-ture, and to the second of in-dem-ni-ji-cd-tion. 

A full and open pronunciation of the long vowel sounds, a clear articu- 
lation of the consonants, a forcible and well-placed accent, and a distinct 
utterance of the unaccented syllables, distinguish the elegant speaker. 



UTTERANCE. 275 



Elocution. 

Elocution is the utterance of words that are arranged 
into sentences, and form discourse. 

Elocution requires a knowledge, and right application, 
of emphasis, pauses, inflections, and tones. 

I. — E m p has is is the peculiar stress of voice which we lay 
upon some particular word or words in a sentence, which are 
thereby distinguished from the rest, as being more especially 
significant. 

II. — Pauses are cessations in utterance, which serve 
equally to relieve the speaker, and to render language intelligi- 
ble and pleasing. The duration of the pauses should be propor- 
tionate to the degree of connection between the parts of the 
discourse. 

HI. — Inflections are those peculiar variations of the hu- 
man voice, by which a continuous sound is made to pass from 
one note, key, or pitch, into another. The passage cf the voice 
from a lower to a higher or shriller note, is called the rising 
or upward inflection. The passage of the voice from a higher 
to a lower or graver note, is called the falling or downward 
inflection. These two opposite inflections may be heard in 
the following examples : 1. The rising, " Do you mean to go ? " 
2. The falling, " When will you gd ? " 

Obs. — Questions that may be answered by yes or no, require the 
rising inflection ; those that demand any other answer, must be uttered 
with the falling inflection. 

IY. — Tones are those modulations of the voice, which de- 
pend upon the feelings of the speaker. They are what Sheridan 
denominates " the language of emotions." And it is of the 
utmost importance that they be natural, unaffected, and 
rightly adapted to the subject and to the occasion ; for upon 
them, in a great measure, depends all that is pleasing or in- 
teresting in elocution. 



276 PROSODY. 



III. -FIGURES. 

A figure, in grammar, is an intentional deviation from 
the ordinary spelling, formation, construction, or applica- 
tion, of words. There are, accordingly, figures of Orthog- 
raphy, figures of Etymology, figures of Syntax, and figures 
of Rhetoric. When figures are judiciously employed, they 
both strengthen and adorn expression. They occur more 
frequently in poetry than in prose, and several of them are 
merely poetic licenses. 



Figures of Orthography. 

A figure of orthography is an intentional devia- 
tion from the ordinary or true spelling of a word. 

The principal figures of orthography are two; namely, 
Mi-me -sis and Ar-cha-ism. 

I. — Mimesis is a ludicrous imitation of some mistake or 
mispronunciation of a word, in which the error is mimicked 
by a false spelling, or the taking of one word for another ; 
as, "Maister, says he, have you any wery good weal in your 
vdllet f " — " Ay, he was porn at Monmouth, captain Gower." 
— Shak. "I will description the matter to you, if you be 
capacity of it." — Id. 

" Perdigious! I can hardly stand." — Lloyd. 

II. — An archaism is a word or phrase expressed accord- 
ing to ancient usage, and not according to our modern or- 
thography ; as, "Newe grene chese of smalle clammynes com- 
fortethe a hotte stomake." — T. Paynel : Tookes Diversions, ii., 
132. 

"With him was rev'rend Contemplation pight, 
Bow-bent with eld, his beard of snowy hue." — Beattie. 



FIGURES. 277 

Figures of Etymology. 

A figure of etymology is an intentional deviation 
from the ordinary formation of a word. 

The principal figures of etymology are eight ; namely, 
a-phaer-e-sis, pros-the-sis, syn'-co-pe, a- 
poc'-o-pe, Par-a-go'-ge, di-aer'-e-sis, syn- 
aer-e-sis, and tme'-sis- 

I. — AphaereSiS is the elision of some of the initial let- 
ters of a word ; as, 'gainst, 'gan, 'neath, — for against, began, 
beneath. 

II. — Prosthesis is the prefixing of an expletive syllable 
to a word ; as, adown, appaid, frestrown, evanished, t/clad, — 
for down, paid, strown, vanished, clad. 

III. — Syncope is the elision of some of the middle letters 
of a word : as, med'cine, for medicine ; e'en, for even ; o'er, 
for over ; conq'ring, for conquering ; se'nnight, for sevennight. 

IV. — Apocope is the elision of some of the final letters of 
a word : as, tho', for though ; th', for the ; t'other, for the other. 

V. — ParagOge is the annexing of an expletive syllable 
to a word : as, withouten, for without ; deary, for dear ; Johnny, 
for John. 

VI. — Diaeresis is the separating of two vowels that might 
form a diphthong : as, cooperate, not cooperate ; aeronaut, not 
aeronaut ; orthoepy, not orthoepy. 

VII. — SynaereSES is the sinking of two syllables into 
one : as, seest, for seest ; tacked, for tack-ed ; drowned, for 
drown-ed. 

Obs. — When a vowel is entirely suppressed in pronunciation (whether 
retained in writing or not), the consonants connected with it fall into 
another syllable ; thus, tried, Priest, loved or &>»'<?, lovest or loiPst, are 
monosyllables ; except in solemn discourse, in which the e is generally 
retained and made vocal. 

VlLL — Tmesis is the inserting of a word between the 
parts of a compound ; as, " On ichich side soever." — " To us 
. ward." — " To God ward." 



278 PROSODY. 

Figures of Syntax. 

A figure of syntax is an intentional deviation from 
the ordinary construction of words. 

The principal figures of syntax are five ; namely, el-lip'- 
sis, ple'-o-nasm, syl-lep -sis, en-al-la-ge, and 
hy-per'-ba-ton. 

Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words which 
are necessary to complete the construction, but not necessary 
to convey the meaning. Such words are said to be under- 
stood ; because they are received as belonging to the sentence, 
though they are not uttered.* 

Almost all compound sentences are more or less elliptical. There 
may be an omission of any of the parts of speech, or even of a whole 
clause ; but the omission of articles or interjections can scarcely consti- 
tute a proper ellipsis. Examples : — 

Of the Article; as, "A man and [a] woman." — "The day, [the] 
month, and [the] year." 

Of the Noun ; as, " The common [lair'] and the statute law." — " The 
twelve [apostles]." — "One [book] of my books." — " A dozen [bottles] of 
wine. " 

Of the Adjective; as, "There are subjects proper for the one, and 
not [proper] for the other." — Karnes. 

Of the Pronoun; as, "I love [him] and [/] fear him." — "The 
estates [which] we own." 

Of the Verb ; as, " Who did this ? I " [did it]. — " To whom thus Eve, 
yet sinless" [spoke]. 

Of the Participle ; as, "That [being] o'er, they part." 

* There can never be an ellipsis of any thing which is either unnecessary to the con- 
struction or necessary to the sense, for to say what we mean and nothing more never 
can constitute a deviation from the ordinary grammatical construction of words. As a 
figure of Syntax, therefore, the ellipsis can be only of such words as are so evidently sug- 
gested to the reader, that the writer is as fully answerable for them as if he had written 
them To suppose an ellipsis where there is none, or to overlook one where it really 
occurs is to pervert or mutilate the text, in order to accommodate it to the parser's 
ignorance of the principles of syntax. There never can be either a general uniformity 
or a self-consistency in our methods of parsing, or in our notions of grammar, till the 
true nature of an ellipsis is clearly ascert dned ; so that the writer may distinguish it 
from a blundering omission that impairs the sense, and the reader be debarred from au 
arbitrary insertion of wha!; would be cumbrous and useless. 



FIGURES. 279 

Of the Adverb ; as, "He spoke [wisely] and acted wisely." — "Ex- 
ceedingly great and [exceedingly] powerful." 

Of the Conjunction; as, " The fruit of the Spirit is love, [and] joy, 
[and] peace, [a;w?] long-suffering, [and] gentleness, [aft<f| goodness, 
[and] faith, [and] meekness, [and] temperance." — Gal. v., 22. The 
repetition of the conjunction is called Polysyndeton ; and the omission 
of it, Asyndeton. 

Of the Preposition; as, u [On] this day." — "[In] next month." — 
"He departed [from] this life." — "He gave' [to] me a hook." — "To 
walk [through] a mile." 

Of the Interjection ; as, "Oh! the frailty, [Oh!] the wickedness of 
men." 

Of a Phrase or a Clause ; as, " The active commonly do more than they 
are bound to do ; the indolent, [commonly do] less " [than they are bound 
to do]. 

Pleonasm is the introduction of superfluous words. 
This figure is allowable only, when, in animated discourse, it 
abruptly introduces an emphatic word, or repeats an idea to 
impress it more strongly : 

" He that hath ears to hear, let him hear ! " — "All ye inhabitants of 
the world, and dwellers on the earth! " — " There shall not be left one 
stone upon another, that shall not be thrown down." — "I know thee who 
thou art." — Bible. 

A pleonasm is sometimes impressive and elegant, but an 
unemphatic repetition of the same idea is one of the worst 
faults of bad writing. 

Syllepsis is agreement formed according to the figura- 
tive sense of a word, or the mental conception of the thing- 
spoken of, and not according to the literal or common use of 
the term ; it is therefore, in general, connected with some 
figure of rhetoric : 

"The Word was made flesh and dwelt among us, and we beheld hk 
glory." — John i., 14. "Then Philip went down to the city of Samaria, 
and preached Christ unto them.'''' — Acts viii., 5. "While Evening 
draws her crimson curtains round." — Thomson. 

E nail age is the use of one part of speech, or of one 
modification for another. This figure borders closely upon 



280 PROSODY. 

solecism ; * and, for the stability of the language, it should be 
sparingly indulged. There are, however, several forms of it 
which can appeal to good authority ; as, 

" You know that you are Brutus that speak this." — Shak. 
u They fall successive [ly], and successive [ly] rise." — Pope. 
" Than whom [who] none higher sat." — Milton. 
"Sure some disaster has befell" [befallen]. — Gay. 
"So furious was that onset's shock, 
Destruction's gates at once unlock." — Hogg. 

Hyperbaton is the transposition of words: 

" He wanders earth around." — Coioper. "Rings the world with the 
vain stir. " — Id. • ' Whom therefore ye ignorantly worship, him declare 1 
unto you." — Acts. 

This figure is much employed in poetry. A judicious use 
of it confers harmony, variety, strength, and vivacity upon 
composition. But c£ire should be taken lest it produce am- 
biguity or obscurity. 

Figures of Rhetoric. 

A figure of rhetoric is an intentional deviation from 
the ordinary application of words. Some figures of this 
kind are commonly called Tropes, i. e., turns. 

Numerous departures from perfect simplicity of diction occur in al- 
most every kind of composition. They are mostly founded on some 
similitude or relation of things, which, by the power of imagination, is 
rendered conducive to ornament or illustration. 

The principal figures of rhetoric are fourteen ; namely, 
Sim'-i-le, Met'-a-phor, Al'-le-gor-y, Me-ton - 
y-my, Syn-ec -do-che, Hy-per'-bo-le, Vis'-ion, 
A-pos'-tro-phe, Per-son'-i-fl-ca'-tion, Er-o- 
te'-sis, Ec-pho-ne'-sis, An-tith'-e-sis, Cli'- 
max, and l'-ro-ny. 

* Deviations of this kind are, in general, to be considered solecisms ; otherwise the 
rules of grammar would be of no use or authority. There are, however, some changes of 
this kind, which the grammarian is not competent to condemn, though they do not 
accord with the ordinary principles of construction. 



FIGURES. 281 

A Simile is a simple and express comparison, and is gen- 
erally introduced by like, as, or so : 

"At first, like thunder's distant tone, 
The rattling din came rolling on." — Hogg. 
" Man, like the generous vine, supported lives ; 
The strength he gains, is from th' embrace he gives. " — Pope. 

A metaphor is a figure that expresses the resemblance 
of two objects by applying either the name, or some attribute 
adjunct, or action of the one, directly to the other : 
4 ' His eye was morning's brightest ray. " — Hogg. 
" Angler in the tides of fame." — Id. 
"Beside him sleeps the warrior's bow." — Langlwrne. 
11 Wild fancies in his moody brain, 

GamboVd unbridled and unbound.'"' — Hogg. 
"Speechless, and fix'd in all the death of wo." — Thorn. 

An allegory is a continued narration of fictitious events, 
designed to represent and illustrate important realities. Thus 
the Psalmist represents the Jewish nation under the symbol 
of a vine : 

" Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : thou hast cast out the 
heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst 
cause it to take deep root ; and it filled the land. The hills were 
covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the 
goodly cedars." — Ps. lxxx., 8. 

Obs. — The allegory, agreeably to the foregoing definition of it, includes 
most of those similitudes which in the Scriptures are called parables ; 
it includes also the better sort of fables. The term allegory is sometimes 
applied to a true history in which something else is intended than is 
contained in the words literally taken. [See Gal. iv., 24.] In the 
Scriptures the term fable denotes an idle and groundless story. [See 
1 Tim. iv., 1 ; and 2 Pet. i., 16.] 

A metonymy is a change of names. It is founded on 
some such relation as that of cause and effect, of subject and 
adjunct, of place and inhabitant, of container and thing contained, 
or of sign and thing signified : 

"God is our salvation;'" i.e., Saviour. — "He was the sigli of hei 
secret soul ; " i.e., the youth she loved. — " They smote the city ; " i.e., 
citizens. — " My son, give me thy heart ; " i.e., affection. — " The scepter 
shall not depart from Judah ; " i. e. , kingly power. 



282 PROSODY. 

Synedoche is the naming of the whole for a part, or of 
a part for the whole ; as, " This roof [i.e., house] protects 
you." — " Now the year [i.e., summer] is beautiful." 

Hyperbole is an extravagant exaggeration, in which the 
imagination is indulged beyond the sobriety of truth : 
"The sky shrunk upward with unusual dread, 
And trembling Tiber ditfd beneath his bed. " — Diyden. 

Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which the speaker 
represents the objects of his imagination as actually before 
his eyes, and present to his senses : 

' ' I see the dagger-crest of Mar ! 
I see the Moray's silver star 
Wave o'er the cloud of Saxon war, 
That up the lake comes winding far ! " — Scott. 
Apostrophe is a turning from the regular course of the 
subject, into an animated address; as, "Death is swallowed 
up in victory. O Death ! where is thy sting ? O Grave ! 
where is thy victory ? " — 1 Cor. xv. 

Personification is a figure by which, in imagination, 
we ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings 
or abstract qualities : 

4 ' The TFcnw, aware of his intent, 

Harangued him thus, right eloquent." — Cowper. 
11 Lo, steel-clad War his gorgeous standard rears ! " — Rogers. 
11 Hark ! Truth proclaims, thy triumphs cease." — Id. 
E rotes is is a figure in which the speaker adopts the form 
of interrogation, not to express a doubt, but, in general, con- 
fidently to assert the reverse of what is asked : 

11 Hast thou an arm like God ? or canst thou thunder with a voice like 
him ? " — Job xl. M He that planted the ear, shall he not hear ? he that 
formed the eye, shall he not see ? " — Ps. xciv. 

Ecphonesis is a pathetic exclamation, denoting some 
violent emotion of the mind : 

"0 liberty ! — O sound once delightful to every Roman ear ! — O sacred 
privilege of Roman citizenship ! — once sacred — now trampled upon ! " — 
Cicero. ' ' O that I had wings like a dove ! for then would I fly away 
and be at rest ! " — Ps. lv., 6. 



FIGURES. 283 

Antithesis is a placing of things in opposition to heighten 
their effect by contrast : 

" Contrasted faults through all his manners reign; 
Though poor, luxurious ; though submissive, vain ; 
Though grave, yet trifling ; zealous, yet untrue ; 
And e'en in penance, planning sins anew." — Goldsmith. 

Climax is a figure in which the sense is made to advance 
by successive steps, to rise gradually to what is more and more 
important and interesting, or to descend to what is more and 
more minute and particular : 

" And beside this, giving all diligence, add to your faith, virtue ; and 
to virtue, knowledge ; and to knowledge, temperance ; and to temper- 
ance, patience ; and to patience, godliness ; and to godliness, brotherly 
kindness ; and to brotherly kindness, charity." — 2 Peter 1. 

Irony is a figure in which the speaker sneeringly utters 
the direct reverse of what he intends shall be understood : 

" We have, to be sure, great reason to believe the modest man would 
not ask him for a debt, when he pursues his life." — Cicero. 

Exercises —Fig ures. 
Praxis VI.— Prosodical. 

In the Sixth Praxis, it is required of the pupil to point out and explain 
the several Figures of Orthography, of Etymology, of Syntax, and 
of Rhetoric; to define each ; and to change the passage into the ordi- 
nary style or expression. The pupil may also be exercised on these 
selections, in the rules of Punctuation, and in the principles of Utter- 
ance and Versification. 

I.— Figures of Orthography. 

' ' Fery goot : I will make a prief of it in my note-book ; and we will 
afterwards ''ork upon the cause with as great discreetly as we can." — Shak. 

" Vat is you sing ? I do not like dese toys. Pray you, go and vetch me 
in my closet un boitier verd ; a box, a green-a box. Do intend vat I 
speak ? a green-a box." — Id. 

" I ax'd you what you had to sell. I am fitting out a wessel for Wenice, 
loading her with wariovs keinds of provisions, and wittualling her for 
a long woyage ; and I want several undred weight of weal, wenison, etc., 
with plenty of inyons and winegar, for the preservation of ealth." 



284 PROSODY. 

11 None [else are] so desperately eviU, as they that may bee good and 
will not : or have beenegood and are not." — Rev. John Rogers, 1620- " A 
Carpenter finds his work as hee left it, hut a Minister shall find his sett 
back. You need preach continually." 

11 Here whilom ligg'd th' Esopus of his age, 

But call'd by Fame, in soul ypricked deep." — Thomson. 
" It was a fountain of Nepenthe rare, 
Whence, as Dan Homer sings, huge pleasaunce grew."— Id. 

II Figures of Etymology. 

Bend 'gainst the steepy hill thy breast, 
Burst down like torrent from its crest. — Scott. 
'Tis mine to teach th' inactive hand to reap 
Kind nature's bounties, o'er the globe diffused. — Dyer. 
Alas ! alas ! how impotently true 
Th' aerial pencil forms the scene anew. 
Here a deformed monster joy'd to won, 
Which on fell rancour ever was ybent. — Lloyd. 
Withouten trump was proclamation made. — Thomson. 
The gentle knight, who saw their rueful case, 
Let fall adown his silver beard some tears. 
11 Certes," quoth he, " it is not e'en in grace. 
T' undo the past and eke your broken years. " — Id. 
Vain tamp' ring has but foster 'd his disease ; 
'Tis desp'rate, and he sleeps the sleep of death. — Gowper. 
I have a pain upon my forehead here — 
Why that's with watching; 'twill away again. — Shakspeare. 
I'll to the woods, among the happier brutes ; 
Come, let's away ; hark ! the shrill horn resounds. — Smith. 
What prayer and supplication soever be made. — Bible. 
By the grace of God we have had our conversation in the world, and 
more abundantly to you ward. — Id. 

III.— Figures of Syntax. 

Ellipsis. 
And now he faintly kens the bounding fawn, 
A [ — ] villager [ — ] abroad at early toil. — Beattie. 
The cottage curs at [ — ] early pilgrim bark. — Id. 
'Tis granted, and no plainer truth appears, 
<)ur most important [ — ] are our earliest years. — Cowper. 



FIGURES. 285 

To earn her aid, "with fix'd and anxious eye, 

He looks on nature's [ — ] and on fortune's course ; 

Too much in vain. — Akenside. 

True dignity is his, whose tranquil mind 

Virtue has rais'd above the things [ — ] below ; 

Who, ev'ry hope and [ — ] fear to Heav'n resign'd, 

Shrinks not, though Fortune aim her deadliest blow. — Beattie. 

For longer in that paradise to dwell, 

The law [ — ] I gave to nature, him forbids. — Milton. 

So little mercy shows [ — ] who needs so much. — Cowper. 

Bliss is the same [ — ] in subject, as [ — ] in king ; 

In [ — ] who obtain defence, and [ — ] who defend. — Pope. 

Man made for kings ! those optics are but dim 

That tell you so — say rather, they [ — ] for him. — Cowper. 

Man may dismiss compassion from his heart, 

But God will never [ ]. — Id. 

Mortals whose pleasures are their only care, 

First wish to be imposed on, and then are [ — ]. — Id. 

Vigor [ — ] from toil, from trouble patience grows. — Beattie. 

Where now the rill melodious, [ — ] pure, and cool, 

And meads, with life, and mirth, and beauty crown'd ? — Id. 

How dead the vegetable kingdom lies ! 

How dumb the tuneful [ ] ! — Thomson. 

Self-love and Reason to one end aspire, 

Pain [ — ] their aversion, pleasure [ — ] their desire ; 

But greedy that its object would devour, 

This [ — ] taste the honey, and not wound the flower. — Pope. 

Pleonasm. 

According to their deeds, accordingly he will repay ; fury to his adver- 
saries, recompense to his enemies. — Bible. 
My head is filled with dew, and my locks with the drops of the night. — 

Solomon's Song v. , 2. 
Thou hast chastised me, and I was chastised, as a bullock unaccustomed 
to the yoke : turn thou me, and I shall be turned ; for thou art the 
Lord my God. — Jer. xxxi., 18. 

Consider the lilies of the field how they grow. — Matt, vi., 28. 
He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord. — 2 Got. x., 17. 
He too is witness, noblest of the train 
That waits on man, the flight-performing horse. — Cowper. 



286 PROSODY. 

Syllepsis. 

Thou art Simon the son of Jona : thou shalt be called Cephas ; which 

is, by interpretation, a stone. — John i., 42. 
Thus saith the Lord of hosts : " Behold I will break the bow of Elam, 

the chief of their might." — Jer. xlix., 35. 
Behold I lay in Zion a stumbling-stone and rock of offense ; and whoso- 
ever belie veth on him shall not be ashamed. — Rom. ix., 33. 
Thus Conscience pleads her cause within the breast, 
Though long-rebell'd against, not yet suppress'd. — Cowper. 
Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much ; 
Wisdom is humble that he knows no more. — Id. 
For those the race of Israel oft forsook 
Their living strength, and unfrequented left 
His righteous altar, bowing lowly down 
To bestial gods. — Milton. 

Enallage. 

Let me tell you, Cassius, you yourself 

Are much condemned to have an itching palm, 

To sell and mart your offices for gold. — Shakspeare. 

Come, Philomelus ; let us instant go, 

O'erturn his bow'rs, and lay his castle low. — Thomson. 

Then palaces shall rise ; the joyful son 

Shall finish what the short-lived sire begun. — Pope. 

Such was that temple built by Solomon, 

Than whom none richer reign'd o'er Israel. — G. Brown, 

He spoke : with fatal eagerness we burn, 

And quit the shores, undestin'd to return. — Day. 

Still as he pass'd, the nations he sublimes.— Thomson. 

Sometimes, with early morn, he mounted gay. — Id. 

Hyperbaton. 

Such resting found the sole of unblest feet. — Milton. 
Yet, though successless, will the toil delight. — Thomson. 
Where, 'midst the changeful scen'ry ever new, 
Fancy a thousand wondrous forms descries. — Beattie. 
Yet so much bounty is in God, such grace, 
That who advance his glory, not their own, 
Them he himself to glory will advance. — Milton, 



FIGURES. 287 

But apt the mind or fancy is to rove 

Uncheck'd, and of her roving is no end. — Id. 

No quick reply to dubious questions make ; 

Suspense and caution still prevent mistake. — Denham. 

IV.— Figures of Rhetoric. 

Simile. 
Human greatness is short and transitory, as the odor of incense in the 

fire. — Dr. Johnson 
Terrestial happiness is of short continuance : the brightness of the flame 
is wasting its fuel, the fragrant flower is passing away in its own 
odors. — Id. 
Thy nod is as the earthquake that shakes the mountains ; and thy smile, 
as the dawn of the vernal day. — Id. 

Plants raised with tenderness are seldom strong ; 
Man's coltish disposition asks the thong ; 
And without discipline, the fav'rite child, 
Like a neglected forester, runs wild. — Gowper. 

Metaphor. 
Cathmon, thy name is a pleasant gale. — Ossian. 
Rolled into himself he flew, wide on the bosom of winds. The old oak 

felt his departure, and shook its whistling head. — Id. 
Carazan gradually lost the inclination to do good, as he acquired the 
power ; and as the hand of time scattered snow upon his head, the 
freezing influence extended to his bosom. — Hawkesworth. 
The sun grew weary of gilding the palaces of Morad ; the clouds of sor- 
row gathered round his head ; and the tempest of hatred roared 
about his dwelling. — Dr. Johnson. 

The tree of knowledge, blasted by disputes, 
Produces sapless leaves instead of fruits. — Denham. 

Allegory. 
"But what think ye ? — A certain man had two sons ; and he came to 
the first, and said, ' Son, go work to-day in my vineyard.' He answered 
and said, ' I will not ' ; but afterward he repented, and went. And he 
came to the second, and said likewise. And he answered and said, 
4 1 go, sir : ' and went not. Whether of them twain did the will of his 
father ? " They say unto him, " The first."— Matt, xxi., 28. 

Metonymy. 
Swifter than a whirlwind, flies the leaden death. — Heroey. 
"Be all the dead forgot," said Foldath's bursting wrath. " Did not I 
fail in the field ? " — Ossian. 



288 PROSODY. 

Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke. — Gray. 

Firm in his love, resistless in his hate, 

His arm is conquest, and his frown is fate. — Day. 

At length the world, renew'd by calm repose, 

Was strong for toil; the dappled morn arose. — ParneU. 

What modes of sight betwixt each wide extreme, 

The mole's dim curtain and the lynx's beam ! 

Of hearing, from the life that fills the flood, 

To that which warbles through the vernal wood ! — Pope. 

Synecdoche. 

T T was then his threshold first receiv'd a guest. — ParneU. 

For yet by swains alone the world he knew, 

Whose feet came wand'ring o'er the nightly dew. — Id. 

Flush'd by the spirit of the genial year, 

Now from the virgin's cheek a fresher bloom 

Shoots, less and less, the live carnation round. — Thomson. 

Hyperbole. 
I <aw their chief, tall as a rock of ice ; his spear, the blasted fir ; his 

shield, the rising moon ; he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist 

on the hill. — Ossian. 

At which the universal host up sent 

A shout that tore Hell's concave, and beyond 

Frighted the reign of Chaos and old Night. — Milton. 

Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood 

Clean from my hand ? No ; this my hand will rather 

The multitudinous seas incarnadine, 

Making the green one red. — Shakspeare. 

Endless tears flow down in streams. — Swift. 

Vision. 
How mighty is their defense who reverently trust in the arm of God ! 
How powerfully do they contend who fight with lawful weapons ! 
Hark ! 'tis the voice of eloquence, pouring forth the living energies of 
the soul ; pleading, with generous indignation, the cause of injured 
humanity against lawless might, and reading the awful destiny that 
awaits the oppressor! — I see the stern countenance of despotism over- 
awed ! I see the eye fallen that kindled the elements of war ! I see 
the brow relaxed that scowled defiance at hostile thousands ! I see the 
knees tremble that trod with firmness the embattled field ! Fear has 
entered that heart which ambition had betrayed into violence ! The 



FIGURES. 289 

tyrant feels himself a man, and subject to tlie weakness of humanity ! 
— Behold ! and tell me, is that power contemptible which can thus find 
access to the sternest hearts ? — G. Brown. 

Apostrophe. 

Yet still they breathe destruction, still go on 

Inhumanly ingenious to find out 

New pains for life, new terrors for the grave ; 

Artificers of death ! Still monarchs dream 

Of universal empire growing up 

From universal ruin. Blast the design, 
Great God of Hosts/ nor let thy creatures fall 
Unpitied victims at Ambition's shrine. — Porteus. 

Personification. 
Hail, sacred Polity, by Freedom rear'd ! 

Hail, sacred Freedom, when by Law restrain'd ! 
Without you, what were man ? A grov'ling herd, 

In darkness, wretchedness, and want enchain'd. — BeattU. 
Let cheerful Memory, from her purest cells, 

Lead forth a goodly train of Virtues fair, 
Cherish'd in early youth, now paying back 

With tenfold usury the pious care.— Porteus. 

Erotesis. 

He that chastiseth the heathen, shall not he correct ? he that teacheth 
man knowledge, shall not he know ? — Psalms xciv., 10. 

Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots ? then 
may ye also do good, that are accustomed to do evil. — Jer. xiii., 33. 

ECPHONESIS. 

O that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I 
might weep day and night for the slain of the daughter of my people ! 
O that I had in the wilderness a lodging place of way-faring men, that I 
might leave my people, and go from them ! — Jeremiah ix., 1. 

Antithesis. 
On this side modesty is engaged ; on that, impudence : on this, chas- 
tity ; on that, lewdness : on this, integrity ; on that, fraud : on this, 
piety ; on that, prof aneness : on this, constancy ; on that, fickleness ; 
on this, honor ; on that, baseness : on this, moderation ; on that, un- 
bridled passion. — Cicero. 

She, from the rending earth, and bursting skies, 
Saw gods descend, and fiends infernal rise ; 
Here fix'd the dreadful, there the blest abodes ; 
Fear made her devils, and weak hope her gods. — Pop*. 
13 



290 PROSODY. 

Climax. 

Virtuous actions are necessarily approved by the awakened conscience ; 
and when they are approved, they are commended to practice ; and 
when they are practiced, they become easy ; and when they beoome 
easy, they aSord pleasure ; and when they a5ord pleasure, they are 
done frequently ; and when they are done frequently, they are con- 
firmed by habit ; and confirmed habit is a kind o!: second nature. 
Irony. 
And it came to pass at noon, that Elijah mocked them, and said, "Cry 
aloud ; for he is a god : either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is 
in [o?i] a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be awaked ! " 
— 1 Kings xviii. , 27. 

Some lead a life unblamable and just, 
Their own dear virtue their unshaken trust ; 
They never sin — or if (as all ofEend) 
Some trivial slips their daily walk attend, 
The poor are near at hand, the charge is small, 
A slight gratuity atones for all. — Cowper. 



IV VERSIFICATION. 

Versification is the art of arranging words into lines 
of correspondent length, so as to produce harmony by the 
regular alternation of syllables differing in quantity. 

Quantity. 
The quantity of a syllable is the relative portion of 
time occupied in uttering it. In poetry, every syllable is con- 
sidered to be either long or short. A long syllable is reckoned 
to be equal to two short ones. 

Obs. 1. — The quantity of a syllable does not depend on the sound of 
the vowel or diphthong, but principally on the degree of accentual force 
with which the syllable is uttered, whereby a greater or less portion of 
time is employed. The open vowel sounds are those which are the most 
easily protracted, yet they often occur in the shortest and feeblest 
syllables. 

Obs. 2. —Most monosyllables are variable, and maybe made either 
long or short, as suits the meter, or rhythm. In words of greater length, 
the accented syllable is always long ; and a syllable immediately before 
or after that which is accented, is always short. 



VERSIFICATION. 991 

Rhyme. 

Rhyme is the similarity of sound between the last syl- 
lables of different lines or half lines. Blank verse is verse 
without rhyme. 

Obs. — The principal rhyming syllables are almost always long. Double 
rhyme adds one short syllable ; triple rhyme, two. Such syllables are 
redundant in iambic and anapestic verses. 

Poetic Feet. 

A line of poetry consists of successive combinations of 
syllables, called feet. A poetic foot, in English, consists 
either of two or of three syllables. 

The principal English feet are the Iambus, the Tro- 
chee, the Anapest, and the Dactyl. 

The Iambus, or lamb, is a poetic foot consisting of 
a short syllable and a long one ; as, betray, confess. 

The Trochee, or Choree, is a poetic foot consisting of 
a long syllable and a short one ; as, hateful, pettish. 

The Anapest is a poetic foot consisting of two short 
syllables and one long one ; as, contravene, acquiesce. 

The Dactyl is a poetic foot consisting of one long sylla- 
ble and two short ones ; as, laborer, possible. 

We have, accordingly, four principal kinds of verse, or 
poetic measure; Iambic, Trochaic, Anapestic, and 
Dactylic. 

Obs. 1. — The more pure these several kinds are preserved, the more 
exact and complete is the chime of the verse. But poets generally in- 
dulge some variety ; not so much, however, as to confound the drift of 
the rythmical pulsations. 

Obs. 2. — Among the occasional diversifications of meter, are sometimes 
found, or supposed, sundry other feet, which are called secondary : as, 
the Spondee, a foot of two long syllables ; the Pyrrhic, of two short ; the 
Moloss, of three long syllables ; the Tribrach, of three short ; the Am- 
phibrach, a long syllable with a short one on each side ; the Amphimac, 
Amphimc cer , or Cretic, a short syllable with a long one on each side ; 
the Bacchy, a short syllable and two long ones ; the Antibacchy, or Hy- 
pobacchy, two long syllables and a short one. Yet few, if any, of thesi 



292 PROSODY. 

feet, are really necessary to a sufficient explanation of English veree ; and 
the adopting of so man}' is liable to the great objection, that we thereby 
produce different modes of measuring the same lines. 

Obs. 3. — Sometimes, also, verses are variegated by what is called the 
pedal cmura, or cesure (i. e. , cutting), which is a single long syllable 
counted by itself as a foot. For, despite the absurd suggestions of many 
grammarians and prosodists to the contrary, all metrical deficiencies and 
redundancies embrace nothing but short syllables, and the number of 
long ones in a line is almost always the number of feet which compose 
it ; as, 

" Keeping | time, \ time, \ time, 
In a | sort of | Runic rhyme.'''' — E. A. Poe. 

Scanning. 

Scanning, or Scansion, is the dividing of verses 
into the feet which compose them, according to the several 
orders of poetic numbers, or the different kinds of meter. 

Obs. — When a syllable is wanting, the verse is said to be catalectic ; 
when the measure is exact, the line is acatalcctic ; when there is a re- 
dundant syllable, it forms hypermeter, or a line hypercatalectic. 

Order I. — Iambic Verse. 

In iambic verse, the stress is laid on the even syllables, 
and the odd ones are short. It consists of the following 
measures : — 

Measure 1st. — Iambic of Eight Feet, or Octometer : 

"O till | y6 p3o[-ple, clap | yuur hands, | find with | triumj-phant voic- 
e's sing ; 
No force | the might ]-y pow'r | withstands | of God | the u!-nivers'-al 
King." 

Obs. — Each couplet of this verse is now commonly reduced to, or ex 
changed for, a simple stanza of four tetrameter lines ; thus, — 
"The hour | is come | — the cher -ish'd hour, 
When from | the bus|-y world | set free, 
I seek | at length | my lone|-ly bower, 

And muse | in si;-lent thought \ on thee." — Hook. 

Measure 2d. — Iambic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter : 

"ThS Lord | descended from | fibove, | find bow'd | the" heavj-eni 
high. " 



VEKSIFICATION. 293 

Obs. — Modern poets have divided this kind of verse, into alternate 
lines of four and of three feet; thus, — 

"O blind | to fach | mdul [-gent aim 
Of pow'r | siiprtme |-ly wise, 
Who fanj-cy hap|-piness | in aught 
The hand | of heav'n | denies ! " 

Measure 3d. — Iambic of Six Feet, or Hexameter : 

"Thy realm | fOrev|-er lasts, [ thy own | Messij-ah reigns." 

Obs. — This is the Alexindrine ; it is seldom used except to complete 
a stanza in an ode, or occasionally to close a period in heroic rhyme. 
French heroics are similar to this. 

Measure Uh. — Iambic of Five Feet, or Pentameter : 
" For praise | too dtar|-ly lov'd | or warmj-ly s5ught, 

Enfee|-bles all | inter |-nal strength | of thought." 
" With s51|-6mn ad|-6ra'-tion dCwn | they cast 

Their crowns, | inwove | with am|-arant ] and gold." 

Obs. 1. — This is the regular English heroic. It is, perhaps, the 
only measure suitable for blank verse. 

Obs. 2. — The elegiac Stanza consists of four heroics rhyming al- 
ternately; as, 

"Enough | has Heav'n | indulg'd [ of joy | below, 

To tempt | our tarj-riance in | this lov'd | retreat; 
Enough | has Heav'n j ordain'd | of usej-ful wo, 
To make | us lang[-uish for | a hap | -pier seat." 

Measure 5th. — Iambic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter : 

" ThS joys [ ab5ve [ &re un|-derstood 
And relj-ish'd on|-ly by | the good." 

Measure 6th. — Iambic of Three Feet, or Trimeter : 
" Bliie light j-nings singe | the" waves, 
And thun|-der rends | the rock." 

Measure 1th. — Iambic of Two Feet, or Dimeter : 

' ' Their love | and awe 

Supply ] the law." 

Measure 8th. — Iambic of One Foot, or Monometer : 
4 ' How bright, 
The light ! " 

Obs. 1. — Lines of fewer than seven syllables are seldom found, ex- 
cept in connection with longer verses. 

Obs. 2. — In iambic verse, the first foot is often varied, by introducing 
a trochee ; as, 

"Planets \ and suns | rim law|-l£ss through | the" sky." 



294 PROSODY. 

Obs. 3. — By a synaeresis of the two short syllables, or perhaps by mere 
substitution, an anapest may sometimes be employed for an iambus ; or 
a dactyl, for a trochee ; as, 

11 (Per man\-y afro\-zen, man\-y afi\-er-y Alp." 

Order II.— Trochaic Verse. 

In trochaic verse, the stress is laid on the odd sylla 
bles, and the even ones are short. Single-rhymed trochaic 
omits the final short syllable, that it may end with a long one. 
This kind of verse is the same as iambic would be without 
the initial short syllable. Iambics and trochaics often occur 
in the same poem. 

Measure 1st. — Trochaic of Eight Feet, or Octometer : 
"Once up] -on a ] midnight | dreary, | while I | pondered, | weak and 
weary, 
Over | many a | quaint and | curious \ volume | of for] -gotten | lore, 
While I | nodded, | nearly | napping, j sudden ]-ly there | came a ] 
tapping, 
As of | some one | gently | rapping, | rapping | at my | chamber 
| door." 

Measure 2d. — Trochaic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter : 
" Hasten, | Lord, to ] rescue | me, and | set me | safe from | trouble ; 
Shame thou | those who | seek my | soul, re] -ward their | mischief | 
double." 

Single Rhyme : 
"Night and j morning ] were at | meeting | over [ Water] -loo; 
Cocks had ] sung their | earliest | greeting ; | faint and | low they ] 
crew." 

Measure 3d. — Trochaic of Six Feet, or Hexameter: 

"On a | m5untain | strctch'd bS]-neath a j hoary | willow, 
Lay a | shepherd | swain, and | view'd the | rolling | billow." 

Single Rhyme : 
" Lonely | in the | forest, | subtle | from his ] birth, 
Lived | a necroj-mancer, ] wondrous | son of | earth." 

Measure Uh. — Trochaic of Five Feet, or Pentameter: 
"Virtue's | bright'ning j ray shall | b:-am for ] ever." 

Single Rhyme : 
"Idlg | aft6r | dinn6r, | in Ms | chair, 
Sat a | farmer, | ruddy, | fat, and | fair." 



VERSIFIGATION". 295 

Measure 5th. — Trochaic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter : 
"Round a | holy | calm dif| -fusing, 
Love of | peace and | lonely | musing." 

Single Rhyme : 

"Restless | mortals | toil for | naught, 
Bliss in | vain from | earth is | sought." 

Measure 6th. — Trochaic of Three Feet, or Trimeter : 
"When cur | hearts are | mourning." 

Single Ehyme : 
" In th6 | days 5f | old, 
Stories [ plainly | told." 

Measure 1th. — Trochaic of Two Feet, or Dimeter : 

1 ' Fancy [ viewing, 
Joys en | -suing." 

Single Rhyme : 
"Tumult | cease, 
Sink to | peace." 

Measure 8th. — Trochaic of One Foot, or Monometer : 

"Changing, 
Ranging." 

Order III. — Anapestic Verse. 

In anapestic verse the stress is laid on every third 
syllable. The first foot of an anapestic line may be an iambus. 

Measure 1st. — Anapestic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter : 

" At the close | of the" day, | when thS ham | let is still, 

And mor j-tals the sweets | of forget | -fulness prove." 

Hypermeter with Double Rhyme : 

:4 In a word, | so complete ]-ly forestall'd | were the wish|-es, 

Even har|-mony struck | from the noise | of the dish|-es." 

Hypermeter with Triple Rhyme : 
" Lean Tom, | when I saw | him, last week, | on his horse \ awry, 
Threaten'd loud|-ly to turn | me to stone | with his sor\-cery." 

Measure Id. — Anapestic of Three Feet, or Trimeter : 
" I am mon |-2rch of all | I survey ; 
My right | there is none | to dispute. " 



296 PROSODY. 

Measure 3d. — Anapestic of Two Feet, or Dimeter : 
" Wh6n I look I on my boys, 
They renew | all my joys." 

Measure 4th. — Anapestic of One Foot, or Monometer : 

" On thS land 
Let me stand." 

Order IV.— Dactylic Verse. 
In pure dactylic verse the stress is laid on the first syl- 
lable of each successive three ; that is, on the first, the fourth, 
the seventh, the tenth syllable, etc. Full dactylic generally 
forms triple rhyme. "When one of the final short syllables is 
omitted, the rhyme is double ; when both are omitted, single. 
Dactylic with single rhyme is the same as anapestic would be 
without its initial short syllables. Dactylic measure is rather 
uncommon, and is seldom perfectly regular. 

Measure 1st. — Dactylic of Eight Feet, or Octometer : 
" Nimrod the" | hunter was | mighty in | hunting, and | famed as the" ] 
ruler of | cities of | yore ; 
Babel, and | Erech, and | Accad, and | Calneh, from | Shinar's fair J 
region his | name afar | bore." 

Measure 2d. — Dactylic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter : 
"Out of the | kingdom of | Christ shall be | gathered, by | angels o'er| 
Satan vie |-torious, 
All that of|-fendeth, that J lieth, that | faileth to | honor his | name 
ever | glorious." 

Measure 3d. — Dactylic of Six Feet, or Hexameter : 
' ' Time, thou art | ever in | motion, on | wheels of the | days, years, and 
I ages ; 
Restless as ] waves of the | ocean, when | Eurus or | Boreas | rages. " 

Example without Bhyme : 
11 This is the | forest pri|-meval ; but | where are the J hearts that be|- 
neath it 
Leap'd like the | roe, when he | hears in the j woodland the | voice of 
the | huntsman ? " 

Measure 4th. — Dactylic of Five Feet, or Pentameter : 
' ' Now thou dost | welcome me, | welcome me, | from the dark | sea, 
Land of the | beautiful, | beautiful | land of the | free." 






VERSIFICATION. 297 

Measure 5th.— Dactylic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter : 
"Boys will an|-ticipate, | lavish, and | dissipate 
All that jour | busy p&te | hoarded with | care ; 
And, in their | foolishness, | passion, and | mulishness, 
Charge you with | churlishness, | spurning your | pray'r." 

Measure 6th. — Dactylic of Three Feet, or Trimeter : 
"Ever sing [ merrily, | merrily." 

Measure 7 th. — Dactylic of Two Feet, or Dimeter : 

"Free from sa]tigty, 

Care, and anx | iety, 

Charms in va ( riety, 

Fall to his | share." 

Measure Sth. — Dactylic of One Foot, or Monometer : 

"Fearfully, 
Tearfully." 

Exercises in Scanning. 

Divide the following verses into the feet which compose them, and dis- 
tinguish by marks the long and the slwrt syllables. 

Deity. 

Alone thou sitst above the everlasting hills, 

And all immensity of space thy presence fills : 
For thou alone art God ; — as God thy saints adore thee ; 
Jehovah is thy name ; — they have no gods before thee. — G. B. 

Health. 
Up the dewy mountain, Health is bounding lightly ; 

On her brows a garland, twin'd with richest posies : 
Gay is she, elate with hope, and smiling sprightly ; 

Redder is her cheek, and sweeter, than the rose is. — G. B. 

Impenitence. 

The impenitent sinner whom mercy empowers, 
Dishonors that goodness which seeks to restore ; 

As the sands of the desert are water'd by showers, 

Yet barren and fruitless remain as before. — G. Brown. 

Piety. 
Holy and pure are the pleasures of piety, 

Drawn from the fountain of mercy and love ; 
Endless, exhaustless, exempt from satiety, 

Rising unearthly, and soaring above. — G. Brown. 
IS* 



298 PROSODY. 

A Simile. 
The bolt that strikes the tow'ring cedar dead, 
Oft passes harmless o'er the hazel's head. — G. Brown. 
Another Simile. 
" Yet to the general's voice they soon obey'd 
Innumerable. As when the potent rod 
Of Amram's son, in Egypt's evil day, 
Wav'd round the coast, up call'd a pitchy cloud 
Of locusts, warping on the eastern wind, 
That o'er the realm of impious Pharaoh hung 
Like night, and darken'd all the land of Nile." — Milton. 

Elegiac Stanza. 

Thy name is dear — 'tis virtue balm'd in love ; 

Yet e'en thy name a pensive sadness brings. 

Ah ! wo the day, our hearts were doom'd to prove, 

That fondest love but points affliction's stings ! — G. Brown. 

Cupid. 
Zephyrs, moving bland, and breathing fragrant 

With the sweetest odors of the spring, 
O'er the winged boy, a thoughtless vagrant, 

Slumb'ring in the grove, their perfumes fling. — G. Brown. 

Divine Power. 
When the winds o'er Gennesaret roar'd, 

And the billows tremendously rose, 
The Saviour but utter'd the word ; 

They were hush'd to the calmest repose. — G. Brown. 
Invitation. 
Come frcm the mount of the leopard, spouse, 

Come from the den of the lion ; 
Come to the tent of thy shepherd, spouse, 
Come to the mountain of Zion. — G. Brown. 
Admonition. 
In the days of thy youth, 

Remember thy God : 
O ! forsake not his truth, 
Incur not his rod. — G. Brown. 
Commendation. 
Constant and duteous, 

Meek as the dove, 
How art thou beauteous, 

Daughter of love ! — G.Brown. 



VERSIFICATION. 299 

EDWIN, AN ODE. 

I. STROPHE. 

Led by the power of song, and nature's love, 
Which raise the soul all vulgar themes above, 
The mountain grove 
Would Edwin rove, 
In pensive mood, alone ; 
And seek the woody dell, 
Where noontide shadows fell, 
Cheering, 
Veering, 
Moved by the zephyr's swell. 
Here nursed he thoughts to genius only known, 
When naught was heard around 
But soothed the rest profound 
Of rural beauty on her mountain throne. 

Nor less he loved (rude nature's child) 
The elemental conflict wild ; 
When, fold on fold, above was piled 
The watery swathe, careering on the wind. 
Such scenes he saw 
With solemn awe, 
As in the presence of th' Eternal Mind. 
Fixed he gazed, 
Tranced and raised, 
Sublimely rapt in awful pleasure undefined. 

II. ANTISTROPHE. 

Reckless of dainty joys, he finds delight 
Where feebler souls but tremble with affright. 
Lo ! now, within the deep ravine, 
A black impending cloud 
Infolds him in its shroud, 
And dark and darker glooms the seen© 
Through the thicket streaming, 
Lightnings now are gleaming ; 
Thunders rolling dread, 
Shake the mountain's head *, 
Nature's war 
Echoes far 
O'er ether borne. 



300 PROSODY. 

That flash 
The ash 
Has scathed and torn ! 
Now it rages ; 
Oaks of ages, 
Writhing in the furions blast, 
Wide their leafy honors cast ; 
Their gnarled arms do force to force oppose : 
Deep rooted in the creviced rock, 
The sturdy trunk sustains the shock, 
Like dauntless hero firm against assailing foes. 

III. EPODE. 

' O Thou who sits above these vapors dense, 
And rul'st the storm by thine omnipotence 
Making the collied cloud thy car, 
Coursing the winds, thou rid'st afar, 
Thy blessings to dispense. 
The early and the latter rain, 
Which fertilize the dusty plain, 

Thy bounteous goodness pours. 
Dumb be the atheist tongue abhorred ! 
All nature owns thee, sovereign Lord ! 

And works thy gracious will ; 
At thy command the tempest roars, 
At thy command is still. 
Thy mercy o'er this scene sublime presides ; 
'Tis mercy forms the veil that hides 
The ardent solar beam ; 
While from the volleyed breast of heaven, 
Transient gleams of dazzling light, 
Flashing on the balls of sight, 
Make darkness darker seem. 
Thou mov'st the quick and sulph'rous leven — 
The tempest-driven 
Cloud is riven ; 
And the thirsty mountain-side 
Drinks gladly of the gushing tide.' 

So breathed young Edwin, when the summer shower 
From out that dark o'erchamb'ring cloud, 
With lightning flash and thunder loud, 

Burst in wild grandeur o'er his solitary bower. — O. Brown. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 301 

Questions for Heview. 

I. — Punctuation. 

Of what does Prosody treat ? 

What is Punctuation ? 

What are the principal points, or marks ? 

What pauses are denoted by the first four points ? 

What pauses are required by the other four ? 

What is the ganeral use of the comma ? 

How many rules for the comma are there ? — what are their heads ? 

What says Rule 1st of simple sentences ? — Rule 2d, of simple members ? — Rule 
3d, of more than two words ? — Rule 4th, of only two words ? — Rule 5th, of 
woras in pairs ? — Rule 6th, of words put absolute ? — Rule 7th, of words in 
apposition ? — Rule 8th, of adjectives ? — Rule 9th, of finite verbs ? — Rule 
10th, of infinitives? — Rule 11th, of participles? — Rule 12th, of adcerbs? — 
Rule 13th, of conjunctions? — Rule 14th, of prepositions ? — Rule 15th, of 
interjections ? — Rule 16th, of words repeated ? — Rule 17th, of dependent 
quotations ? 

IT. —Punctuation. 

How many and what exceptions are there to Rule 1st for the comma ? — to 
Rule 2d ?— to Rule 3d ?— to Rule 4th V— to Rule 5th ?— to Rule 6th ?— to 
Rule 7th ?— to Rule 8th ?— to Rule 9th ?— to Rule 10th ?— to Rule 11th ?— 
to Rule 12th ?— to Rule 13th ?— to Rule 14th ?— to Rule 15th ?— to Rule 
16th ?— to Rule 17th ? 

When are different words said to be in the same construction ? 

III. — Punctuation. 
What is the general use of the semicolon ? 

How many rules are there for the semicolon ? — what are their heads ? 
What says Rule 1st of compound members? — Rule 2d, of simple members? — 

Rule 3d, of words hi apposition ? 
What is the general use of the colon ? 

How many rules are there for the colon ? — what are their heads ? 
What says Rule 1st of additional remarks ?— Rule 2d, of greater pauses? — 

Rule 3d, of independent quotations? 
What is the general use of the period ? 

How many rules are there for the period ? — what are their heads ? 
What says Rule 1st of distinct sentences ?— Rule 2d, of allied sentences ?— Rule 

3d, of abbreviations ? 

IV. —Punctuation. 

What is the use of the dash ? 

How many rules are there for the dash ? — what are their heads ? 

What says Rule 1st of abrupt pauses?— Rule 2d, of emphatic pauses ?— Rule 

3d, of faulty dashes? 
What is the use of the eroteme, or note of interrogation ? 
How many rules are there for it ? — what are their heads ? 



302 PROSODY. 

What says Rule 1st of questions direct ? — Rule 2d, of questions united ? — Rule 

3d, of questions indirect ? 
What is the use of the ecphoneme, or note of exclamation ? 
How many rules are there for it ? — What are their heads ? 
What says Rule 1st of interjections ? — Rule 2d, of invocations ? — Rule 3d, of 

exclamatory questions ? 

V. —Punctuation. 

What is the use of the curves, or marks of parenthesis ? 

How many rules are there for them ? — What are their heads ? 

What says Rule 1st of the parenthesis ?— Rule 2d, of included points ? 

What is said about other marks ? 

What is the use of the apostrophe?— of the hyphen? — of the diaeresis? — of 
the acute accent? — of the grave accent? — of the circumflex? — of the 
breve ?— of the macron ?— of the ellipsis ? — of the caret ? — of the brace ? 
— of the section ? — of the paragraph ? — of the quotation points ? — of the 
crotchets ? — of the index ? — of the asterisk, the obelisk, the double dag- 
ger, and the parallels ? — of the asterism ? — of the cedilla ? 

[Having correctly answered the foregoing questions, the pupil should be taught to 
apply what he has learned ; and, for this purpose, he may be required to read the preface 
to this Tolume, or a portion of any other accurately pointed book, and to assign a reason 
for every mark he finds.] 

VI. — Utterance. 

What is Utterance? — What does it include ? 

What is pronunciation ? — What does pronunciation require ? 

What are the just powers of the letters ? 

What is accent ? — Is every word accented ? 

Can a word have more than one accent ? 

What four things distinguish the elegant speaker ? 

What is elocution ? — What does elocution require ? — What is emphasis ? 

What are pauses ? — What is said of their duration ? 

What are inflections ? — What is called the rising inflection ? — What is called 

the falling inflection ? — How are these inflections exemplified ? — How are 

they used in asking questions ? 
What are tones ? — Why do they deserve particular attention ? 

VII.— Figures. 

What is a Figure in grammar ? — How many kinds of figures are there ? 
What is a figure of orthography ? — Name the figures of this kind. 
What is mimesis ? — What is an archaism ? 
What is a figure of etymology ? 
How many and what are the figures of etymology ? 

What is aphaeresis ?— prosthesis ?— syncope ?— apocope ?— paragoge ?— diure- 
sis ? — synaeresis ? — tmesis ? 
What is a figure of syntax ? — How many and what are the figures of syntax ? 
What is ellipsis in grammar ? — Are sentences often elliptical ? 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 303 

How can there be an ellipsis of the article ? — the noun ? — the adjective ? — the 
pronoun ? — the verb ? — the participle ? — the adverb ? — the conjunction ? — 
the preposition ? — the interjection ? — a phrase or a clause ? 

What is pleonasm ? — When is this figure allowable ? 

What is syllepsis ? — enallage ? — hyperbaton ? — What is said of hyperbaton ? 

VHI.— Figures. 

What is a figure of rhetoric ? — What name have some such figures ? 

Do figures of rhetoric often occur ? — On what are they founded ? 

How many and what are the principal figures of rhetoric ? 

What is a simile ? — a metaphor ? — an allegory ? — a metonymy ? — synecdoche ? 

— hyperbole ? — vision ? — apostrophe ? — personification ?— erotesis ? — ec- 

phonesis ? — antithesis ? — climax ? — irony ? 

IX.— Versification. 
What is Versification ? — What is the quantity of a syllable ? 
How is quantity denominated ? — How is it said to be proportioned ? 
On what does quantity depend ? — What sounds are the most easily length- 
ened? 
What words are variable in quantity ? — What syllables are fixed ? 
What is rhyme ? — What is blank verse ? 

Of what does a line of poetry consist ? — Of what does a. foot consist ? 
What are the principal English feet? 
What is an iambus ? — a trochee ? — an anapest ? — a dactyl ? 
How many kinds of verse are there ? 
What is scanning, or scansion ? 

X. —Versification. 
What syllables are accented in an iambic line ? 
What are the several measures of iambic verse ? 
What syllables are accented in a trochaic line ? 
What are the several measures of trochaic vers© ? 
What syllables are accented in an anapestic bine ? 
What are the several measures of anapestic verse ? 
What syllables are accented in a dactylic line ? 
What are the several measures of dactylic verse ? 



APPENDIX I. 



COMPOSITION. 

After studying carefully the Kules for Punctuation (page 
252), the pupil will be sufficiently advanced to apply to his own 
compositions the various principles and rules requisite for 
their full correction. The following suggestions are designed 
to afford a guide to the teacher and pupils for a series of 
graded exercises in composition, in continuation of the practi- 
cal language lessons already interspersed through this 
work. 

In connection with these exercises, the pupils should be required to study carefully the 
principles and rules contained in Appendix II. 

Preliminary Exercises* 

1. Read a story, biographical sketch, or incident in history ; 
and require the pupils to reproduce it in their own language, as 
far as possible. 

This exercise should be continued sufficiently long to familiarize the 
pupils with the narrative style of composition, and to teach them to 
avoid the awkward expressions and repetitions customary with those 
untrained in this branch of composition. The simplest and easiest 
narratives should at first be selected. 

2. Write out. or otherwise give to the pupils, a full account of 
any particular incident or event, and require them to abridge or 
condense it, omitting all but the most important circumstances. 

3. Write a brief account of any incident or event, and require 
the pupils to expand it, adding any circumstances which they 
may conceive could have existed or occurred in connection with 
the facts stated. 



COMPOSITION. 305 

Both of these exercises of condensation and expansion should be con- 
tinued for some time, as they cultivate special faculties of the mind, 
most Important to be addressed in training the pupil in the production 
and expression of thought. 

4. Select a piece of poetry, and require the pupils to express 
the same thoughts in prose, using a plainer and less figurative 
style. 

Be careful to select only such pieces as are fully adapted to the pupils' 
comprehension. 

5. Require the pupils to write an analysis of any piece of 
prose or poetry, giving the topics treated, with the arguments and 
illustrations employed, etc. 

Begin with easy pieces, and advance gradually to more difficult ones. 
Do not give argumentative pieces at first. This exercise, when skillfully 
employed, is a most excellent one, as it will go far to impart to the 
mind habits of regular, logical thought. 

6. Require the pupils to write out criticisms of selected pieces, 
making observations on the thoughts, their arrangement and re- 
lation to the subject, as well as the modes of expression employed. 

These exercises will prepare the mind for writing compositions on 
miscellaneous subjects. This is a task which should never be im- 
posed without the preliminary exercises. Many pupils are permanently 
disgusted with composition by being required to perform this impossi- 
ble task. 

Original Composition. 

7. Assign a subject, or theme, and suggest the mode of treat- 
ment, writing down for the pupils the topics which should be con- 
sidered and discussed, with the arrangement to be employed. 

This exercise should be pursued until the pupils' minds have become 
accustomed to the discovery of topics. It is designed to afford training 
in what is called, in rhetoric, Invention. 

During the exercise, the teachers should require the pupils to suggest 
the topics, before deciding himself what is proper. 

8. Reverse the above exercise; that is, select an appropriate 
. subject, and require the pupils to discover the topics which should 



306 APPENDIX. 

be treated under it, and to write, by properly arranging them, an 
analysis of the mode of treatment. 

This should be done at first so as to afford a b.'ief sketch or outline, 
which afterward may be expanded or filled in, by suggesting illustra- 
tions, arguments, etc., under each topic. As considerable exercise of 
this kind will be needed, the pupils should be required to write out in 
full only an occasional composition ; but the analysis should be copied in 
a book, and preserved by the pupil, for the next exercise, which is the 
writing of compositions on selected themes. 

9. Require the piqrils to write compositions on subjects either 
selected for them or suggested by their own minds. 

It is preferable, at this stage, that the pupils should select their own 
subjects, as a general thing, in order to give full scope to the original 
suggestions of the mind, and to the unfolding of any special talent or 
genius for composition, which will often be found to show itself under 
the training here outlined, if it be faithfully persevered in. 



LETTER- WRITING. 

In connection with the above exercises, the pupils should 
be instructed in letter-writing. This will include the 
proper forms, as shown below. 

Heading. 

The heading consists of the name of the place (sometimes 
the street and number) from which the letter is sent, and the 
date,— including month, day, and year. This should be writ- 
ten a line or two from the top of the page, and should be 
commenced so that it may end near the margin of the sheet 
at the right. Thus : — 

New York, May 10, 1882. 
Or, when the street is mentioned : — 

56 Lafayette Place, 

New York, May 10, 1882. 



LETTER-WRITING. 307 

Address. 

The address should, in formal letters, follow on the next 
line, near the left side of the page, usually a little to the right 
of the body of the letter. Thus : — 
Mr. Thomas H. Brown, 

Springfield, III., 
Sir, 
Or, in less formal letters : — 
Mr. William A. Thompson, 
Dear Sir, 
Or, as implying greater intimacy : — 
Mr. John B. Smith, 
My dear Sir, 

Where the address is to a company, the following may be 
used : — ■ 

Messrs. William Wood & Co., 
New York, 
Gentlemen, 

In less formal letters, the address may be written below and 
at the left of the signature, at the end of the letter. 

Other forms of address will be required according to cir- 
cumstances, varying with the persons addressed and the terms 
of intimacy that exist. Thus : — 

A. B. Palmer, Esq. ; John Porter, M.D. ; Dr. John Porter ; 
B. G. Baldwin, LL.D.; Bev. H. J. Davis, or Be v. Mr. Davis; 
Noah Porter, D.D., LL.D.; etc. 

"When ladies are addressed, the following are customary : — 

Miss Brown ; Miss Kate Field ; Mrs. George Burns ; Mrs. 
General Grant; etc. 

These may be followed by : 

Sir, Dear Sir, My dear Sir, Sirs, Gentlemen ; Madam, Dear 
Madam, My dear Madam, Ladies ; Dear Mr. Hart, My dear Mr. 
Smith ; Dear Friend, My dear Friend, etc. 



308 APPENDIX. 

The title Hon. is applied to persons holding high govern- 
mental positions ; His Excellency is sometimes applied to the 
President of the United States and to State Governors. 

Body, 

The body of the letter should be commenced on the line 
next below the address, and a little to the right of it. The 
style will vary with the character of the letter. Business let- 
ters should be formal, brief, and to the point. Friendly cor- 
respondence requires an easy, familiar style, for the acquisi- 
tion of which the study of good models will be very useful. 
A few specimens for the opening are here given : — 

Yours of the 5th inst. is just received, etc. 

Your favor of the 3d inst. is received, etc. 

Your esteemed favor of the 10th inst. is at hand, etc. 

/ am in receipt of yours, etc. 

Yours of the 20th ult. has remained unanswered until now, etc. 

Closing. 

The forms of closing, followed by the signature, are various. 
A few are here given : — 

Respectfully yours ; Very respectfully yours ; Truly yours ; 
Yours truly ; Very truly yours ; Your obedient servant; Your 
obedient, humble servant ; Yours cordially ; Faithfully yours ; 
Yours affectionately ; Ever affectionately yours ; As ever, your 
friend; etc. 

Superscription. 

Write the name about midway between the top and bottom 
of the envelope ; under this write the address, commencing 
each line a little farther to the right than that above it. 
Great care should be taken to make the address as legible as 
possible. 

Affix the postage stamp to the right-hand corner at the top 
of the envelope. 



SUPERSCRIPTION. 
The following are examples : — 



309 





Stamp 


Oik @fc/&un. &**«»*, 


SO*/ (Qetd^C Cr<xu-t^ee.-n.^:A ( Qr^i-ee/ / 


of^u^Ud. 







QJjjO-ewi'U. t&wi-t'ZA.; (@d-t%..; 




^&-Uj^€i^CO / 


of. %. 

\ 



c4i&<Ld. 






Q$0. cJk. ^a^it/eid, 






<o4k*4&*^ 




SUe <$*., 




S^. 



310 APPENDIX. 






C^'/u<i<yi<u. / 










Q$on. <%. SP. &&«~t, ofa <$., 




Qjrpoude. -af Q^eA-t^de^t^a.-t-cajied, 





APPENDIX II. 



QUALITIES OF STYLE. 

Style is the particular manner in which a person expresses his con- 
ceptions by means of language. It is different from mere words, and is 
not to be regulated altogether by rules of construction. It always has 
some relation to the author's peculiar manner of thinking ; and, being 
that sort of expression which his thoughts most readily assume, some- 
times partakes, not only of what is characteristic of the man, but even 
of national peculiarity. The words which an author employs, may be 
proper, and so constructed as to violate no rule of syntax ; and yet his 
style may have great faults. 

To designate the general characters of style, such epithets as concise, 
diffuse, — neat, negligent, — nervous, feeble, — simple, affected, — easy, 
stiff, — perspicuous, obscure, — elegant, florid, — are employed. A con- 
siderable diversity of style, may be found in compositions all equally 
excellent in their kind. And, indeed, different subjects, as well as the 
different endowments by which genius is distinguished, require this 
diversity. But in forming his style, the learner should remember, that 
a negligent, feeble, affected, stiff, or obscure style, is always faulty; 
and that perspicuity, ease, simplicity, strength, and neatness, are quali- 
ties always to be aimed at. 

In order to acquire a good style, the frequent practice of composing 
and writing something, is indispensably necessary. Without exercise 
and diligent attention, rules or precepts for the attainment of this object 
will be of no avail. When the learner has acquired such a knowledge 
of grammar, as to be in some degree qualified for the undertaking, he 
should devote a stated portion of his time to composition. This exer- 
cise will bring the powers of his mind into requisition, in a way that is 
well calculated to strengthen them. And if he has opportunity for 
reading, he may, by a diligent perusal of the best authors, acquire both 
language and taste, as well as sentiment ; and these three are the essen- 
tial qualifications of a good writer. 

In regard to the qualities which constitute a good style, we can here 
offer no more than a few brief hints. W T ith respect to words and 
phrases, particular attention should be paid to purity, propriety, and pre- 
cision ; and, with respect to sentences, to perspicuity, unity, and strength. 
Under each of these heads, we shall arrange, in the form of short pre- 
cepts, a few of the most important directions for the forming of a good 
style. 

I. — Purity. 

Purity of style consists in the use of such words and phrases only, as 
belong to the language which we write or speak. 



312 APPENDIX. 

Precept 1. — Avoid the unnecessary use of foreign words or idioms: 
as fraicheur, hauteur, delicatesse, politesse, noblesse ; he repented him- 
self ; it serves to an excellent purpose. 

Precept 2. — Avoid, on ordinary occasions, obsolete or antiquated 
words ; as, whihrn, erewhile, whoso, albeit, moreover, aforetime, me- 
thinks. 

Precept 3. — Avoid strange or unauthorized words; as, flutter ation, 
inspectator, judgematical, incumberment, connexity, electerized, martyr- 
ized. 

Precept 4. — Avoid bombast, or affectation of fine writing. It is 
ridiculous, however serious the subject : as, " Personifications, however 
rich the depictions, and unconstrained their latitude ; analogies, how- 
ever imposing the objects of parallel, and the media of comparison ; can 
never expose the consequences of sin to the extent of fact, or the range 
of demonstration." — Anonymous. 

II. — Propriety. 

Propriety of language consists in the selection and right construction, 
of such words as the best usage has appropriated to those ideas which 
we intend to express by them. 

Precept 1. — Avoid low and provincial expressions : such as, "Says 
I; n — "Thinks 1 to myself ;" — " To get into a scrape;'" — " Stay here 
while I return." 

Precept 2. — In writing prose, avoid words and phrases that are 
merely poetical : such as, mom, eve, plaint, lone, amid, oft, steepy ; — 
" what time the winds arise." 

Precept 3.— Avoid technical terms; except where they are neces- 
sary, in treating of a particular art or science. In technology, they are 
proper. 

Precept 4. — Avoid the recurrence of words in different senses, or 
such a repetition of words as denotes paucity of language ; as, ' ' His 
own reason might have suggested better reasons. " — " Gregory favored 
the undertaking, for no other reason than this, that the manager, in 
countenance, favored his friend." — "I want to go and see what he 
wants." 

Precept 5. — Supply words that are wanting: thus, instead of say- 
ing, " This action increased his former services," say, "This action in- 
creased the merit tf/his former services." 

Precept 6. — Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions; as, "His 
memory shall be lost on the earth." — "I long since learned to like 
nothing but what you do." 

Precept 7. — Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions; as, 
" I have observed that the superiority among these coffee-house politi- 
cians, proceeds from an opinion of gallantry and fashion." — "These 
words do not convey even an opaque idea of the author's meaning." 

Precept 8. — Observe the natural order of things or events, and do 
not put the cart before the horse ; as, "The scribes taught and studied 
the law of Moses."—" They can neither return to nor leave their houses." 
— " He tumbled, head over heels, into the water." 

III. — Precision. 

Precision consists in avoiding all superfluous words, and adapting the 
expression exactly to the thought, so as to exhibit neither more nor less 
than is intended by the author. 
I 



QUALITIES OF STYLE. 313 

Precept 1. — Avoid a useless tautology, either of expression or senti- 
ment: as in, "Return again ; — return back again ; — converse together ; 
—rise up ; — fall down ; — enter in ; — a mutual likeness to each other ; — 
the latter end; — liquid streams; — grateful thanks; — the last<9/#^/ — 
throughout the whole book." "Whenever I go, he always meets me 
there." — "Where is he at? In there. "— T' Nothing else but that." — 
"It is odious and hateful." — " His faithfulness and fidelity should be 
rewarded." 

Precept 2. — Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synony- 
mous, and employ those words which are the most suitable ; as, "A 
diligent scholar may acquire knowledge, gain celebrity, obtain rewards, 
win prizes, and get high honor, though he earn no money." These 
six verbs have nearly the same meaning, and yet they cannot well be 
changed. 

IV.— Perspicuity. 

Perspicuity consists in freedom from obscurity or ambiguity. It is a 
quality so essential, in every kind of writing, that for the want of it, no 
merit can atone. "Without this, the richest ornaments of style, only 
glimmer through the dark, and puzzle instead of pleasing the reader." — 
Blair. Perspicuity, being the most important property of language, and 
an exemption from the most embarrassing defects, seems even to rise to 
a degree of positive beauty. We are naturally pleased with a style that 
frees us from all suspense in regard to the meaning ; that ' ■ carries us 
through the subject without embarrassment or confusion ; and that always 
flows like a limpid stream, through which we can see to the very bottom. " 

Precept 1. — Place adjectives, relative pronouns, participles, adverbs, 
and explanatory phrases, as near as possible to the words to which they 
relate, and in such a situation as the sense requires. The following sen- 
tences are deficient in perspicuity : " Reverence is the veneration paid 
to superior sanctity, intermixed with a certain degree of awe." "The 
Romans understood liberty, at least, as well as we." " Taste was never 
made to cater for vanity." 

Precept 2. — In prose, avoid a poetic collocation of words. 

Precept 3. — Avoid faulty ellipses, and repeat all words necessary to 
preserve the sense. The following sentences require the words inserted 
in crotchets: " Restlessness of mind disqualifies us, both for the enjoy- 
ment of peace, and [for] the performance of our duty." — Murray 1 s Key. 
" The Christian religion gives a more lovely character of God, than any 
[other] religion ever did." — Ibid. 

V.— Unity. 

Unity consists in avoiding useless breaks or pauses, and keeping one 
object predominant throughout a sentence or paragraph. Every sen- 
tence, whether its parts be few or many, requires strict unity. 

Precept 1. — Avoid brokenness and hitching. The following example 
lacks the very quality of which it speaks : " But most of all, in a single 
sentence, is required the strictest unity. It may consist of parts, indeed, 
but these parts must be so closely bound together, as to make the impres- 
sion upon the mind, of one object, not of many. " — Murray 1 s Grammar. 

Precept 2. — Treat different topics in separate paragraphs, and dis- 
tinct sentiments in separate sentences. Error : " The two volumes are, 
indeed, intimately connected, and constitute one uniform system of Eng- 
lish grammar." — Murray 's Preface. 
14 



314 APPENDIX. 

Precept 3. — In the progress of a sentence, do not desert the princi- 
pal subject in favor of adjuncts. Error: "To substantives belong gen- 
der, number, and case ; and they are all of the third person when spoken 
of, and of the second when spoken to. " — Murray's Grammar. 

Precept 4. — Do not in^oduce parentheses, except when a lively re- 
mark may be thrown in without diverting the mind too long from the 
principal subject. 

VI.— Strength. 

Strength consists in giving to the several words and members of a 
sentence, such an arrangement as shall bring out the sense to the best 
advantage, and present every idea in its due importance. A concise 
style is the most favorable to strength. 

Precept 1. — Place the most important words in the situation in which 
they will make the strongest impression. 

Precept 2. — A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger ; and 
when the sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the 
concluding one. 

Precept 3. —When things are to be compared or contrasted, their re- 
semblance or opposition will be rendered more striking, if some resem- 
blance in the language and construction be preserved. 

Precept 4. — It is, in general, ungraceful to end a sentence with an 
adverb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word or phrase, which may 
either be omitted or be introduced earlier. 



APPENDIX III. 



POETIC DICTION. 

Poetry, as defined by Dr. Blair, "is the language of passion, or of 
enlivened imagination, formed, most commonly, into regular numbers. " 
The style of poetry differs, in many respects, from that which is com- 
monly adopted in prose. Poetic diction abounds in bold figures of 
speech, and unusual collocations of words. A great part of the figures 
which have been treated of under the head of prosody, are purely poeti- 
cal. The primary aim of a poet is to please and to move ; and, there- 
fore, it is to the imagination, and the passions, that he speaks. He may, 
and he ought to, have it in his view to instruct and reform ; but it is in- 
directly, and by pleasing and moving, that he accomplishes this end. 
The exterior and most obvious distinction of poetry is versification ; yet 
there are some forms of verse so loose and familiar as to be hardly dis- 
tinguishable from prose ; and there is also a species of prose so meas- 
ured in its cadences, and so much raised in its tone, as to approach 
very nearly to poetical numbers. 

Poetical Peculiarities. 

The following are some of the most striking peculiarities in which the 
poets indulge, and are indulged : — 

I. — They very often omit the articles ; as, 

" What dreadful pleasure ! there to stand sublime, 
Like shipwrecked mariner on desert coast ! "—Beattie. 

II. — They abbreviate many nouns; as, amaze, for amazement; ac- 
claim, for acclamation ; consult, for consultation ; corse, for coipse ; eve, 
or even, for evening ; fount, for fountain ; helm, for helmet ; lament, for 
lamentation; morn, for morning'; plaint, for complaint; targe, for 
target ; weal, for wealth. 

III. — They employ several nouns that are not used in prose, or are 
used but rarely ; as, benison, boon, emprise, fane, guerdon, guise, ire, 
ken, lore, meed, sire, steed, stithy, welkin, yore. 

IV. — They introduce the noun self after another noun of the possessive 
case ; as, 

1. " Affliction's semblance bends not o'er thy tomb, 

Affliction's self deplores thy youthful doom." — Byron. 

2. "Thoughtless of beauty, she was beauty's self ." —Thomson. 

V. — They place before the verb nouns, or other words, that usually 
come after it ; and, after it, those that usually come before it ; as, 

1. " No jealousy their dawn of love o'ercast, 

Nor blasted icere their wedded days with strife." — Beattie. 

2. "No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets." 

3. ' : Thy chain a wretched iceight shall prove." — Langhorne. 

4. " Follows the loosen" d aggravated roar." — Thomson. 

5. ' ' That purple grows the primrose pale," — Langhorne. 



316 APPENDIX. 

VI. — They often place adjectives after their nouns ; as, 

1. "Or where the gorgeous East, with richest hand, 

Showers on her kings barbaric, pearl and gold." — Milton. 

2. " Come, nymph demure, with mantle blue." 

VII. — They ascribe qualities to things to which they do not literally 
belong ; as, 

1. " Or drowsy tinkling? lull the distant folds." — Gray. 

2. " Imbitter'd more and more from peevish day to day." — Thomson. 

3. " All thin and naked, to the numb cold night,"— Shakspeare. 

VIII. — They use concrete terms to express abstract qualities (i. e. , ad- 
jectives for nouns) ; as, 

1. " Earth's meanest son, all trembling, prostrate falls, 

And on the boundless of thy goodness calls." — Young. 

2. "Meanwhile, whate'er of beautiful or new, 

Sublime or dreadful, in earth, sea, or sky, 
By chance or search was offered to his view, 
He scann'd with curious and romantic eye." — Beattie. 

3. " Won from the void and formless infinite."— Milton. 

IX. — They substitute quality for manner (i.e., adjectives for adverbs) ; 
as, 

- The stately-sailing swan, 



Gives out his snowy plumage to the gale ; 
And, arching proud his neck, with oary feet 
Bears forward fierce, and guards his osier isle.'" — Thomson. 
2. " Thither continual pilgrims crowded still." — Id, 

X. — They form new compound epithets ; as, 

1. " In world-rejoicing state, it moves sublime."— Thomson. 

2. " The deicy-skirted clouds imbibe the sun. 11 — Id. 

3. "By brooks and groves in hollow -whispering gales." — Id. 

4. " The violet of sky-woven vest." — Langhorne. 
6. " A leaguo from Epidamnum had we sailed, 

Before the alivayswind-obeying deep 

Gave any tragic instance of our harm." — Shakspeare. 

XI. — They connect the comparative degree to the positive ; as, 

1. " Near and more near the billows rise." — Merrick. 

2. *' Wide and wider spreads the vale." — Dyer. 

3. " Wide and more wide, the o'erflowings of the mind 

Take every creature in, of every kind." — Pope. 

XII. — They form many adjectives in y, which are not common in 
prose ; as, A gleamy ray, — towery height, — steepy hill, — steely casque, — 
heapy harvests, — moony shield, — writhy snake, — stilly lake, — vasty deep, 
— paly circlet. 

XIII. — They employ adjectives of an abbreviated form ; as, dread, for 
dreadful ; drear, for dreary ; ebon, for ebony ; hoar, for hoary ; lone, 
for lonely ; scant, for scanty ; slope, for sloping ; submiss, for submis- 
sive ; vermil, for vermillion ; yon, for yonder. 

XIV. — They employ several adjectives that are not used in prose, or 
are used but seldom ; as, azure, blithe, boon, dank, darkling, darksome, 
doughty, dun, fell, rife, rapt, rueful, sear, sylvan, twain, wan. 

XV. — They employ personal pronouns, and introduce their nouns 
afterwards ; as, 

1. " It curl'd not Tweed alone, that breeze."— W. Scott. 

2. " Is it the lightning's quivering glance, 

That on the thicket streams ; 
Or do they flash on spear and lance, 
The sun^ retiring beams ? " — Id. 



POETIC DICTIOJS". 317 

XVI. — They sometimes omit the relative, of the nominative case ; as, 

" For is there aught in sleep can charm the wise ? " — Thomson. 
XVII. — They omit the antecedent, or introduce it after the relative ; as, 

1. ''Who never fasts, no banquet e"er enjoys, 

Who never toils or watches, never sleeps." — Armstrong. 

2. '■'■Who dares think one thing and another tell, 

My soul detests him as the gates of hell. 1 ' — Pope's Homer. 

XVIII. — They remove relative pronouns and other connectives, into 
the hody of their clauses ; as, 

1. " Parts the fine locks, her graceful head that deck." — Darwin. 

2. " Not half so dreadful rises to the sight 

Orion's dog, the year when autumn weighs." — Pope's Homer. 

XIX. : — They make intransitive verbs transitive ; as, 

1. " A while he stands, 

Gazing the inverted landscape, half afraid 

To meditate the blue profound below." — Thomson. 

2. " Still in harmonious intercourse, they liv'd 

The rural day, and talk'd the flowing heart." — Id. 

XX. — They give to the imperative mood the first and the third person ; 
as, 

1. " Turn we a moment fancy's rapid flight." — Thomson. 

2. " Be man's peculiar work his sole delight." — Beattie. 

3. " And what is reason ? Be she thus deftrid : 

Beason is upright stature in the soul ! " — Young. 

XXI. — They employ can, could, and would as principal verbs transi- 
tive ; as, 

1. •' What for ourselves we can, is always ours." 

2. " Who does the best his circumstance allows, 

Does well, acts nobly : — angels could no more." 1 " 1 — Young. 

3. " What would this man ? Now upward will he soar, 

And, little less than angel, would be more." — Pope. 

XXII. — They place the infinitive before the word on which it de- 
pends ; as, 

'• When first thy sire to send on earth 
Virtue, his darling child, design' 'd." — Gray. 

XXIII.— They place the auxiliary after its principal ; as, 

" No longer heed the sunbeam bright 
That plays on Carron's breast he can." — Langhorne. 

XXIV. — Before verbs they sometimes arbitrarily employ or omit pre- 
fixes ; as, begird, bedim, evanish, emove ; for gird, dim, vanish, move : — 
lure, wail, wilder, reave ; for allure, bewail, bewilder, bereave. 

XXV. — They abbreviate verbs; as, list, for listen; ope, for open. 

XXVI. — They employ several verbs that are not used in prose, or are 
used but rarely ; as, appal, astound, brook, cower, doff, ken, wend, ween, 
trow. 

XXVII. — They sometimes imitate a Greek construction of the infini- 
tive ; as, 

1. ' ' Who would not sing for Lycidas ? he knew 

Himself to sing, and build the lofty rhyme." — Milton. 

2. " For not, to have been dipp'd in Lethe lake, 

Could save the son of Thetis from to die." — Spenser. 



318 APPENDIX. 

XXVIII.— They employ the participles more frequently than prose 
writers, and in a construction somewhat peculiar ; as, 

1. " He came, and, standing in the midst, explain'd 

The peace rejected, but the truce obtained."" — Pope. 

2. "Asa poor miserable captive thrall 

Comes to the place where he before had sat 
Among the prime in splendor, now deposed, 
Ejected, emptied., gaz'd, unpitied, shunrCd, 
A spectacle of ruin or of scorn. 1 ' — Milton. 

XXIX. — They employ several adverbs that are not used in prose, 
or are used hut seldom ; as, oft, haply, inly, blithely, cheerily, deftly, 
felly, rifely, ruefully, starkly, yarely. 

XXX. — They give to adverbs a peculiar location ; as, 

1. " Peeping from forth their alleys green." — Collins. 

2. " Erect the standard there of ancient night." — Milton. 

3. " The silence often of pure innocence 

Persuades, when speaking fails." — Shakspeare. 

4. " Where universal love not smiles around." — Thomson. 

5. " Robs me of that which not enriches him."— Shakspeare. 

XXXI. — They omit the introductory adverb there ; as, 
" Was nought around but images of rest." — Thomson. 

XXXII. — They employ the conjunctions, or — or, and nor — nor, 

as correspondents ; as, 

1. " Or by the lazy Scheldt or wandering Po."— Goldsmith. 

2. •' Wealth heap'd on wealth, nor truth nor safety buys." — Johnson. 

3. " Who by repentance is not satisfied, 

Is nor of heaven, nor earth."— Shakspeare. 

XXXIII. — They often place prepositions and their adjuncts, he- 
fore the words on which they depend ; as, 

" Against your fame with fondness hate combines; 
The rival batters, and the lover mines." — Johnson. 

XXXIV. — They sometimes place the preposition after its object ; as, 

1. " When beauty, Ederts boicers within, 

First stretch'd the arm to deeds of sin, 
When passion burn'd, and prudence slept, 
The pitying angels bent and wept." — Hogg. 

2. " The Muses fair, these peaceful shades among, 

With skillful fingers sweep the trembling strings." — Lloyd. 

XXXV. — They employ interjections more frequently than prose 
writers ; as, 

" O let me gaze ! — Of gazing there's no end. 
O let me think ! — Thought too is wilder'd here." — Young. 

XXXVI. —They employ antiquated words and modes of expres- 
sion ; as, 

1. " Withouteyi that would come an heavier bale."— Thomson. 

2. " He was to weet, a little roguish page, 

Save sleep and play, who minded nought at all." — Id. 

3. " Not one eftsoons in view was to be found."— Id. 

4. " To number up the thousands dwelling here, 

An useless were, and eke an endless task." — Id. 

5. "Of clerks good plenty here you mote espy." — Id. 

6. " But these I passen by, with nameless numbers moe." — Id. 



APPENDIX IV. 



A KEY 

TO THE 

EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX. 



Rule I.— Articles. 

Note I. 
Thfc is a hard saying. 

Passing from an earthly to a heavenly diadem. 
Few have the happiness of living with such a one. 
She evinced a uniform adherence to the truth. 
This is truly a wonderful invention. 
He is a younger man than we supposed. 
A humorsome child is never long pleased. 
Your friend is an honorable man. 
The elephant is an herbivorous animal. 

Note n. 

Avoid rude sports ; an eye is soon lost, or a bone broken. 

As the drop of the bucket, and the dust of the balance. 

Not a word was uttered, nor a sign given. 

I despise not the doer, but the deed. 

Crime consists not in the act, but in the motive. 

Note III. 

What is the difference between the old and the new method ' 

The sixth and the tenth have a close resemblance. 

Is Paris on the right hand, or the left ? 

Does Peru join the Atlantic, or the Pacific ocean ? 

He was influenced both by a just and a generous principle. 

The book was read by the old and the young. 

I have both the large and the small grammar. 

Are both the north and the south line measured ? 

Are the north line and the south both measured ? 

Are both the north and the south lines measured ? 

Are both the north lines and the south measured ? 



320 APPENDIX. 

Note IV. 

Is the north and south line measured ? 

Are the two north and south lines hoth measured ? 

A great and good man looks beyond time. 

They made but a weak and ineffectual resistance. 

The Alleghany and Monongahela rivers form the Ohio. 

I rejoice that there is another and better world. 

Were God to raise up another such man as Moses. 

The light and worthless kernels will float. 

Note V. 
Cleon was another sort of man. 
There is a species of animal called seal. 
Let us wait in patience and quietness. 
The contemplative mind delights in silence. 
Arithmetic is a branch of mathematics. 
You will never have another such chance. 
I expected some such answer. 
And I persecuted this way unto death. 

Note VI. 
He is entitled to the appellation of gentleman. 
Cromwell assumed the title of Protector. 

Her father is honored with the title of Earl. # 

The chief magistrate is styled President. 
The highest title in the State is that of Governor. 
Oak, pine, and ash, are names of whole classes of objects. 

Note VII. 
He is a better writer than reader. 
He was an abler mathematician than linguist. 
I should rather have an orange than an apple. 

Note VIII. 

The words (or, those words) which are signs of complex ideas, are 

liable to be misunderstood. 
The carriages which were formerly in use were very clumsy. 
The place is not mentioned by the geographers who wrote at that time. 

Note IX. 

Means are always necessary to the accomplishing of ends. 

By the seeing of the eye, and the hearing of the ear, learn wisdom. 

In the keeping of his commandments, there is great reward. 

For the revealing of a secret, there is no remedy. 

Have you no repugnance to the torturing of animals V 

Note X. 

By breaking the law, you dishonor the lawgiver. 
An argument so weak is not worth mentioning. 
In letting go our hope, we let all go. 
Avoid talking too much of your ancestors. 
The cuckoo keeps repeating her unvaried notes. 
Forbear boasting of what you can do. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 321 

Promiscuous. 

The path, of truth is a plain and safe one. 

This statement is merely an hypothesis. 

There was a harshness in his words. 

Neither the rules nor the examples are correct. 

He fully deserved the name of traitor. 

He is a more effective writer than speaker. 

What sort of animal is an oyster ? 

She was carrying a ewer of water. 

He was busy in translating a French work. 

This passage has another and different meaning. 

It showed what kind of man he was. 

What is the cost of an hour-glass ? 

Is there any difference between the upper and the lower side ? 

The travelers who visited the country were put to death. 

Rule II.— Adjectives. 

Note I. 

Things of this sort are easily understood. 

Who broke those tongs ? 

Where did I drop these scissors ? 

Bring out those oats. 

Extinguish those embers. 

I disregard these minutiae. 

That kind of injuries we need not fear. 

What was the height of that gallows which Haman erected ? 

Note II. 

We rode about ten miles an hour. 

'Tis for a thousand pounds. 

How deep is the water ? About six fathoms. 

The lot is twenty-five feet wide. 

I have bought eight loads of wood. 

Notes III. and IV. 

Two negatives, in English, destroy each other. 

That the heathens tolerated one another, is allowed. 

David and Jonathan loved each other tenderly. 

Words are derived one from another in various ways. Or better : Deri 

vative words are formed from their primitives in various ways. 
Teachers like to see their pupils polite to one another. 
The Graces always hold one another by the hand. 
He chose the last of these three. 
Trisyllables are often accented on the first syllable. 
Which are the two most remarkable isthmuses in the world ? 

Notes V. and VI. 

The Scriptures are more valuable than any other writings. 
The Russian empire is more extensive than any other government in the 
world. 

14* 



322 APPENDIX. 

Israel loved Joseph more than all his other children, because he was the 

son of his old age. 
Of all ill habits idleness is the most incorrigible. 
Eve was the fairest of women. 
Hope is the most constant of all the passions. 

Note VII. 

That opinion is too general (or common) to be easily corrected. 

Virtue confers the greatest (or highest) dignity upon man. 

How much better are ye than the fowls ! 

Do not thou hasten above the Most High. 

This was the unkindest cut of all. 

The waters are frozen sooner and harder. 

A healthier (or more healthy) place cannot be found. 

The best and the wisest men often meet with discouragements. 

Note VIII. 

He showed us an easier and more agreeable way. 
This was the plainest and most convincing argument. 
Some of the wisest and most moderate of the senators. 
This is an ancient and honorable fraternity. 
There vice shall meet a fatal and irrevocable doom. 

Note IX. 

He is an industrious young man. 

She has an elegant new house. 

The first two classes have read. 

The two oldest sons have removed to the westward. 

England had not seen another such king. 

Note X. 

She reads well and writes neatly. 

He was extremely prodigal. 

They went, conformably to their engagement. 

He speaks very fluently, and reasons justly. 

The deepest streams run the most silently. 

These appear to be finished the most neatly. 

He was scarcely gone when you arrived. 

I am exceedingly sorry to hear of your misfortunes. 

The work was uncommonly well executed. 

This is not so large a cargo as the last. 

Thou knowest how good a horse mine is. 

I cannot think so meanly of him. 

He acted much more wisely than the others. 

Note XI. 

I bought those books at a very low price. 

Go and tell those boys to be still. 

I have several copies ; thou art welcome to those two. 

Which of those three men is the most useful ? 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 323 

Note XII. 

Hope is as strong an incentive to action as fear ; thafr is the anticipation 

of good, this of evil. 
The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy ; but we should 
not therefore account these happy, and those miserable. 
Memory and forecast just returns engage, 
That pointing back to youth, this on to age. — Pope. 

Note XHL 

Let each of them be heard in his turn. 

On the Lord's day, every one of us Christians keeps the sabbath. 

Is either of these men known ? 

No ; neither of them has any connections here. 

Note XIV. 

Did any of the company stop to assist you ? 
Here are six ; but none of them will answer. 

Note XV. 

Some crimes are thought deserving of death. 

Rudeness of speech is very unbecoming to [or, in] a gentleman. 

To eat with unwashed hands was disgusting to a Jew. 

Leave then thy joys, unsuiting to such age — or, 
Leave then thy joys, not suiting such an age, 
To a fresh comer, and resign the stage. 

Promiscuous. 

William is brighter than any of the other pupils. 

Any of those four boys is trustworthy. 

Bears of this kind are hard to tame. 

The house is about twenty feet wide. 

These two sisters are very fond of each other. 

The last of those three pictures is the prettiest, but none of them pleases 

me. 
Of all ill habits that is the worst. 
Let the first three pupils in the class rise. 
Will you have a luscious ripe peach ? 
I cannot carry those books now. 
What an exceedingly bad cold you have ! 
Try to get well as quickly as you can. 

Rule III.— Adverbs. 

Note I. 

The work will never be completed. 

We should always prefer our duty to our pleasure 

It is impossible to be continually at work. 

He behaved impertinently to his master. 

The heavenly bodies are perpetually in motion. 

He found her not only busy, but even pleased and happy. 

The man discharged only his duty. 



324 APPENDIX. 

Note II. 

Give him an early and decisive answer. 

When a substantive is put absolute. 

Such expressions sound harsh. 

Such events are of rare (or, unfrequent) occurrence. 

"Velvet feels very smooth. 

The wind blew keen and cold. 

Note III. 

Hence it appears that the statement is incorrect. 
Thence arose the misunderstanding. 
Do you know whence it proceeds ? 

Note IV. 

Know now, whether this is thy son's coat or not. 
Whether he is in fault or not, I cannot tell. 
I will ascertain whether it is so or not. 

Note V. 

I will by no means entertain a spy. 

Nobody ever invented or discovered any thing, in any way to be com 

pared with this. 
I did all I could ; I can do no more. 
Neither he nor any one else can do that. 

Promiscuous. 

Tell me whether this is true or not. 

Why do you say nothing ? 

He came here only to make trouble. 

Nothing can ever justify an untruth. 

He was able to pay the debt but in part. 

The messenger went directly to the place. 

Whence did he set out ? 

The two ladies were dressed nearly alike. 

He read only the book, not the notice of it. 

He only read the book ; he did not tear it. 

Rule IV Participles. 

Note I. 

By observing truth, you will command respect. 

I could not, for my heart, forbear pitying him. 

I heard them discussing this subject. 

By consulting the best authors, he became learned. 

Here are rules, by observing which you may avoid error. 

Note II. 

Their consent was necessary for the raising of any supplies. 
Thus the saving of a great nation devolved on a husbandman. 
It is an overvaluing of ourselves, to decide upon every thing. 
The teacher does not allow any calling of ill names. 



KEY TO EALSE SYNTAX. 325 

That burning of the capitol was a wanton outrage. 
May nothing hinder our receiving of so great a good. 
My admitting of the fact will not affect the argument. 
Cain's killing of his brother originated in envy. 

Note HI. 
Caesar carried off the treasures which his opponent had neglected to 

take with him. 
It is dangerous to play with edge tools. 
I intend to return in a few days. 

To suffer needlessly— or, Needless suffering — is never a duty. 
Nor is it wise to complain. 

I well remember to have told you so— or, that I told you so. 
The doing of good — or, To do good— is a Christian's vocation. 
Piety is a constant endeavor to live to God. It is an earnest desire to 

do his will, and not our own. 

Note TV. 
There is no harm in women's knowing about these things. 
They did not give notice of the pupil's leaving. 
The sun, darting his beams through my window, awoke me. 
The maturity of the sago tree is known by the leaves' being covered 
with a delicate white powder. 

Note V. 
Sailing up the river, you may see the whole town. 
Being conscious of guilt, men tremble at death — or, Consciousness of 

guilt renders death terrible. 
By yielding to temptation, we sacrifice our peace. 
In loving, our enemies, we shed no man's blood. 
By teaching the young, we prepare them for usefulness. 

Note VI. 
A nail well driven will support a great weight. 
See here a hundred sentences stolen from my work, 
I found the water entirely frozen, and the pitcher broken. 
Being forsaken by my friends, I had no other resource. 

Note VII. 
Till by barbarian deluges o'erfiowed. 
Like the luster of diamonds set in gold. 
A beam ethereal, sullied and absorb'd. 
With powerless wings around them wrapped. 
Error learned from preaching, is held as sacred truth. 

Promiscuous 
He could not have written such a letter. 
By studying faithfully, you will acquire knowledge. 
While crossing the street, we saw the lady. 
The learning of anything requires application. 
I do not remember to have spoken of the affair. 
By the exercise of our faculties, they are improved. 
The garment was without seam, being woven in one piece. 



326 APPENDIX. 

What is the cause of that pupil's heing so deficient ? 

To strive to excel is always commendable. 

The breaking of windows is the sport of mischievous boys. 

He disliked to be under an obligation. 

Being considered a scholar did not make him one. 

Rule V.— Prepositions. 

Note I. 

She finds a difficulty in fixing her mind. 

This affair did not fall under his cognizance. 

He was accused of betraying his trust. 

There was no water, and he died of thirst. 

I have no occasion for his services. 

You may safely confide in him. 

I entertain no prejudice against him. 

You may rely on what I tell you. 

Virtue and vice differ widely from each other. 

This remark is founded on truth. 

After many toils, we arrived at our journey's end. 

I will tell you a story very different from that. 

Their conduct is agreeable to their profession. 

Excessive pleasures pass from satiety into disgust. 

I turned in disgust from the spectacle. 

They are gone into the meadow. 

Let this be divided among the three. 

The shells were broken into pieces. 

The deception has passed with every one. 

They never quarrel with each other. 

Through every difficulty — or, Amidst all difficulties— he persevered. 

Let us go up stairs. 

I was in London, when this happened. 

We were detained at home, and disappointed of our walk. 

This originated in mistake. 

I am disappointed in the work ; it is very inferior to what I expected. 

Note II. 

Be worthy of me, as I am worthy of you. 
They cannot but be unworthy of the care of others. 
Thou shalt have no portion on this side of the river. 
Sestos and Abydos were exactly opposite to each other. 
Ovid was banished from Rome by his patron Augustus. 

Promiscuous. 

He divided his property among his four sons. 

For whom was this message meant ? 

He plunged into the river, and swam across it. 

That remark is not worthy of your notice. 

He put a basket of apples into his wagon. 

The pupil was admonished of his many faults. 

The Indian differs from the Caucasian in color. 

He is unacquainted with the subject, and hence he cannot speak upon it. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 327 



Rule VI.— Nominatives. 

They that seek wisdom will be wise. 

She and I are of the same age. 

You are two or three years older than we. 

Are not John and thou cousins ? 

Thou must have been idle. 

I can write as handsomely as thou. 

There are but few better pupils than he. 

Who do you think was there ? 

Who broke this slate ? I. 

Them that honor me, I will honor ; and they that despise me, shall be 

lightly esteemed. 
He who in that instance was deceived, is a man of sound judgment. 
You know as well as I what was done. 



Rule VII.— Apposition. 

The book is a present from my brother Richard, him that keeps the 

book-store. 
I am going to see my friends in the county, them that we met at the 

ferry. 
This dress was made by Catharine, the milliner, her that we saw at work. 
Dennis, the gardener, he that gave me the tulips, has promised me a 
peony. 

Resolve me, why the cottager and king, 
He whom sea-sever'd realms obey, and he 
Who steals his whole dominion from the waste, 
Repelling winter blasts with mud and straw, 
Disquieted alike, draw sigh for sigh. — Young. 

Rule VIII.— Verb and Subject. 

We were disappointed. 

She dares not oppose it. 

His pulse is too quick. 

Circumstances alter cases. 

He needs not trouble himself. 

Twenty-four pence are two shillings. 

On one side were beautiful meadows. 

He may pursue what studies he pleases. 

What has become of our cousins ? 

There were more impostors than one. 

What say his friends on this subject ? 

Thou knowest the urgency of the case. 

What avail good sentiments with a bad life ? 

Have those books been sent to the school ? 

There are many occasions for the exercise of patience. 

What sounds has each of the vowels ? 

There was a great number of spectators. 

There is an abundance of treatises on this easy science. 

In this affair, perseverance with dexterity was requisite. 



328 APPENDIX. 

Note I. 

The derivation of these words is uncertain. 

Four years' interest was demanded. 

One added to nineteen makes twenty. 

The increase of orphans renders the addition necessary. 

The road to virtue and happiness is open to all. 

The ship, with all her crew, was lost. 

A round of vain and foolish pursuits, delights some folks. 

Note II. 

To obtain the praise of men was their only object. 
To steal and then deny it is a double sin. 
To copy and claim the writings of others, is plagiarism. 
To live soberly, righteously, and piously, is required of all men. 
That it is our duty to promote peace and harmony among men admits 
of no dispute. 

Note III. 

The reproofs of instruction are the way of life. 
A diphthong is two vowels joined in one syllable. 
So great an affliction to him were his wicked sons. 
What are the latitude and longitude of that island ? 
He churlishly said to me, "Who are you ? " 

Note IV. 

That boy writes very elegantly. 
Does not your cousin intend to visit you ? 
The Lord hath prepared his throne in the heavens. 
Do you think it will rain to-day ? 
Praise waiteth for thee, O God, in Sion. 
My brother has torn my book. 
You stood in my way, and hindered me. 

So then it is not of him that willeth, nor of him that runneth, but of 
God that showeth mercy. 

Note V. 
The work was finished last week. 
He has been out of employment this fortnight. 
This mode of expression was formerly in use. 
I shall be much obliged to him if he will attend to it. 
I will pay the vows which my lips uttered when I was in trouble. 
I thought, by the accent, that he was speaking to his child. 
And he that had been dead sat up and began to speak. 
Thou hast borne, and hast had patience, and for my name's sake hast 

labored, and hast not fainted. 
Ye will not come unto me that ye may have life — or, Ye would not 

come unto me that ye might have life. 
At the end of this quarter, I shall have been at school two years. 
We have done no more than it was our duty to do. 
We expected that he would arrive last night. 
Our friends intended to meet us. 
We hoped to see you. 
He would not have been allowed to enter. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 329 

Note VI. 

The doctor affirmed that fever always produces thirst. 
The ancients asserted that virtue is its own reward. 
Columbus knew that the earth is round. 

Note VII. 

I am sorry to hear of thy loss, but I hope it may be retrieved. 

The physician speaks favorably of the case ; he is inclined to think the 
. patient will get well. 

I should be happy to see you soon. 

On further information I find my loss to be inconsiderable. 
Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, 
And wilt thou never be to Heaven resigned ? 

Promiscuous. 

Some people are always busy, and yet do very little. 

Sufficient data were not given to solve the problem. 

A judicious selection of studies affords much aid. 

Then thou spokest in vision to thy Holy One. 

He dares not do as he threatens. 

The man doesn't know what he wants. 

Sobriety with humility leads to honor. 

New York, May 3, 1882. 
Dear Sir, 

I have just received your kind favor of this morning, and I 
cannot forbear to express my gratitude to you. On further information, 
I find I have not lost so much as I at first supposed ; and I believe I 
shall still be able to meet all my engagements. I should, however, be 
happy to see you. Accept, dear sir, my most cordial thanks. C. D. 

Rule IX. — Collective Nominative. 

The nobility were assured that he would not interpose. 

Blessed are the people that know the joyful sound. 

The majority were disposed to adopt the measure. 

The committee have voted upon the report. 

The peasantry go barefoot, and the middle class wear wooden shoes. 

The Church has no power to inflict such punishment. 

The fleet was almost destroyed in the action. 

The regiment consists of a thousand men. 

The council has established several salutary regulations. 

No society is responsible for the conduct of its members. 

A large flock of birds was in sight. 

The public are informed that a meeting will be held. 

A group of children were growing up about him. 

The jury has been formed, but have not agreed. 

The happy pair have received the congratulations of their friends. 

Rule X.— Two or more Nominatives. 

Temperance and exercise preserve health. 

Time and tide wait for no man. 

My love and affection toward thee remain unaltered. 



330 APPENDIX. 

Wealth, honor, and happiness forsake the indolent. 

My flesh and my heart fail. 

In all his works there are sprightliness and vigor. 

Elizabeth's meekness and humility were extraordinary. 

In unity consist the security and welfare of every society. 

High pleasures and luxurious living beget satiety. 

Much do human pride and folly require correction. 

Our conversation and intercourse with the world are, in several respects,, 

an education for vice. 
Occasional release from toil, and indulgence of ease, are what natur* 

demands, and virtue allows. 

Note I. 

Wisdom, and not wealth, procures esteem. 

Prudence, and not pomp, is the basis of his fame. 

Not fear, but labor has overcome him. 

The decency, and not the abstinence, makes the difference. 

Not her beauty, but her talents, attract attention. 

Her talents, not her beauty, attract attention. 

Study, not vain pleasures, engages his mind. 

Note II. 

His constitution, as well as his fortune, requires care. 
Their religion, as well as their manners, was ridiculed. 
Every one, but thou, had been legally discharged. 
The buyer, as well as the seller, is held liable. 
All songsters, save the hooting owl, were mute. 
None, but thou, O mighty prince ! can avert the blow. 
Nothing, but frivolous amusements, pleases the indolent. 
Caesar, as well as Cicero, was admired for his eloquence. 

Note III. 

Each day, and each hour, brings its portion of duty. 
Every house, and even every cottage, was plundered. 
Every thought, every word, and every action, is brought into judgment. 
The time has come when no oppressor, and no unjust man, is able to b« 
screened from punishment. 

No bandit fierce, no tyrant mad with pride, 
No cavern'd hermit, rests self-satisfied. — Pope. 

Note IV. 

To profess, and to possess, are very different. 

To do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with God, have been 

enjoined upon all mankind. 
To cultivate the mind and to purify the heart were the objects of her 

endeavors. 

Promiscuous. 

No wife, no mother, no child was there to soothe his dying hours. 
Virtue, and virtue alone, is able to satisfy the heart. 
There is beauty of thought and elegance of expression in all his poems. 
The long and short of the matter is simply this. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 331 

James, and also his brother, has left school. 

Every herb, every shrub, and every tree, is beginning to bud. 

That noted poet and scholar has passed from earth. 

Not a loud voice, but strong proofs, bring conviction. 

The saint, the father, and the husband prays. 

The ebb and flow of the tides is now understood. 

Rule XI.— Singular Nominatives 

Neither imprudence, credulity, nor vanity, has ever been imputed to 
him. 

What the heart or the imagination dictates, flows readily. 

Neither authority nor analogy supports such an opinion. 

Either ability or inclination was wanting. 

Redundant grass or heath affords abundance to their cattle. 

The returns of kindness are sweet ; and there is neither honor, nor vir- 
tue, nor utility, in repelling them. 

The sense or drift of a proposition, often depends upon a single letter. 

Note I. 

Neither he nor you were there. 
Either the boys or I was in fault. 
Neither he nor I intend to be present. 
Neither the captain nor the sailors were saved. 

Whether one person or more were concerned in the business, does not 
yet appear. 

Note IL 

Are they, or am I, expected to be there ? 

Neither is he, nor am I, capable of it. 

Either he has been imprudent, or his associates have been vindictive. 

Neither were their riches, nor was their influence great. 

Note in. 

My father and I were riding out. 

The premiums were given to George and me. 

Jane and I are invited. 

They ought to invite my sister and me. 

We dreamed a dream in one night, he and I. 

Note IV. 

To practice tale-bearing, or even to countenance it, is great injustice. 
To reveal secrets, or to betray one's friends, is contemptible perfidy. 

Promiscuous. 

Ignorance or negligence has caused the mistake. 
Neither the man nor his sons have been here. 
Either he or I am mistaken ; — or, 
Either he is mistaken, or I am. 
Neither thou nor I am to blame ; — or, 
Neither art thou to blame, nor am I. 

To have brilliant talents, or to amass great riches, renders most persons 
very proud. 



332 APPENDIX. 

Neither my father nor I am able to be present. 
Vanity, ambition, or sensuality leads many to ruin. 
To read, or to write was equally difficult to her. 
Neither the captain nor the passengers were saved. 

Rule XII.— Verbs Connected. 

He will fail, and therefore he should not undertake it. 

Doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and gd into the mountains, and 
seek that which is gone astray ? 

Did he not tell thee his fault, and entreat thee to forgive him ? 

If he understands the business, and attends to it, wherein is he deficient ? 

The day is approaching, and is hastening upon us, in which we must 
give an account of our stewardship. 

If thou dost not turn unto the Lord, but dost forget him who remem- 
bered thee in thy distress, great will be thy condemnation — or, 
better : If thou turn not unto the Lord, but forget him who remem- 
bered thee in thy distress, great will be thy condemnation. 

There are a few, who have kept their integrity to the Lord, and who 
prefer his truth to all other enjoyments. 

This report was current yesterday, and it agrees with what we heard 
before. 

Virtue is generally praised, and it would be generally practiced also, if 
men were wise. 

Note I. 

He would have gone with us, if we had invited him. 

They have chosen the part of honor and virtue. 

He soon began to be weary of having nothing to do. 

Somebody has broken my slate . 

I saw him when he did it. 

Note II. 

He had entered into the conspiracy. 

The Southern planters raise cotton and rice. 

The report is founded on truth. 

I entered the room and sat down. 

Go and lie down, my son. 

With such books, it will always be difficult to teach children to read. 

Rule XIII.— Subject and Attribute. 

We thought it was thou. 

I would act the same part, if I were he. 

It could not have been she. 

It is not I, that he is angry with. 

They believed it to be me. 

It was thought to be he. 

If it had been she, she would have told us. 

We know it to be them. 

Who do you think it is ? 

Whom do you suppose it to be ? 

We did not know who they were. 

Thou art he whom they described. 

Impossible ! it can't be I. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 333 

Who did he think you were ? 
Who say ye that I am ? 
Art thou he who they say thou art ? 

If I had known it to be her, I should have spoken to her in a very dif- 
ferent manner. 

Rule XIV.— Pronoun and Antecedent. 

Every man must judge of his own feelings. 

Can any person, on his entrance into the world, be fully secure that he 

shall not be deceived ? 
He cannot see one in prosperity, without envying him. 
I gave him oats, but he would not eat them. 
Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put it on Jacob. 
Take up the tongs, and put them in their place. 
Let each esteem others better than himself. 
A person may make himself happy without riches. 
Every man should try to provide for himself. 
The mind of man should not be left without something on which to 

employ its energies. 

Note I. 
Many words darken speech. 

These praises he then seemed inclined to retract. 
These people are all very ignorant. 
Asa's heart was perfect with the Lord. 
Who, instead of going about doing good, are perpetually intent upon 

doing mischief. 
Whom ye delivered up, and denied in the presence of Pontius Pilate. 
Whom, when they had washed her, they laid in an upper chamber. 
There are witnesses of the fact which I have mentioned. 
He is now sorry for what he said. 

The empress, approving these conditions, immediately ratified them. 
Though this incident appears improbable, yet I cannot doubt the 

author's veracity. 

Note II. 

Thou art m.j father's brother, else would I reprove thee ; — or, 
You are my father's brother, else would I reprove you. 
Your weakness is excusable, but your wickedness is not ; — or, 
Thy weakness is excusable, but thy wickedness is not. 
Now, my son, I forgive thee, and freely pardon thy fault ; — or, 
Now, my son, I forgive you, and freely pardon your fault. 

You draw the inspiring breath of ancient song, 

Till nobly rises emulous your own ; — or, 

Thou drawst the inspiring breath of ancient song, 

Till nobly rises emulous thy own. 

Note III. 

This is the horse which my father imported. 
Those are the birds which we call gregarious. 
He has two brothers, one of whom I am acquainted with. 



334 APPENDIX. 

What was that creature which Job called leviathan ? 

Those who desire to be safe, should be careful to do that which is right 

A butterfly, who thought himself an accomplished traveler, happened 

to light upon a bee-hive. 
There was a certain householder who planted a vineyard. 

Note IV. 

The races that anciently invaded Europe were Aryans. 

The court, which has great influence upon the public manners, ought 
to be very exemplary. 

The Persian armies which the Greeks defeated had been considered in- 
vincible. 

Note V. 

Judas (which is now another name for treachery) betrayed his master 

with a kiss. 
He alluded to Phalaris, — which is a name for all that is cruel. 

Note VI. 

He was the first that entered. 

He was the drollest fellow that I ever saw. 

This is the same man that we saw before. 

Who is she that comes clothed in a robe of green ? 

The wife and fortune that he gained did not aid him. 

Men that are avaricious never have enough. 

All that I have is thine. 

Was it thou, or the wind, that shut the door ? 

It was not I that shut it. 

The babe that was in the cradle appeared to be healthy. 

Note VII. 

He is a man that knows what belongs to good manners, and that will 

not do a dishonorable act. 
The friend who was here, and who entertained us so much, will never 

be able to visit us again. 
The curiosities which he has brought home, and which we shall have 

the pleasure of seeing, are said to be very rare. 

Note VIII. 

Observe them in the order in which they stand. 
We proceeded immediately to the place to which we were directed. 
My companion remained a week in the state in which I left him. 
The way in which I do it, is this. 

Note IX. 

Remember the condition from which thou art rescued. 

I know of no rule by which it may be done. 

He drew up a petition, in which he too freely represented his own 

merits. 
The hour is hastening, in which whatever praise or censure I have 

acquired, will be remembered with equal indifference. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 335 



Note X. 



Many will acknowledge the excellence of religion, who cannot tell 

wherein that excellence consists. 
Every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle. — Jefferson. 

Better : Not every difference of opinion is a difference of principle. 
Next to the knowledge of God, the knowledge of ourselves seems most 

worthy of our endeavor. 

Note XI. 

Thou, who hast thus condemned the act, art thyself the man that com- 
mitted it. 

Tnere is in simplicity a certain majesty, which is far above the quaint- 
ness of wit. 

Thou, who art a party concerned, hast no right to judge. 

It is impossible for such men as those who are likely to get the appoint- 
ment, ever to determine this question. 

There are, in the empire of China, millions of people, whose support is 
derived almost entirely from rice. 

Note XII. 

I had no idea but that the story was true. 

The post-boy is not so weary but that he can whistle. 

He had no intimation but that the men were honest. 

Note XIII. 

Some men are too ignorant to be humble, and without humility there 

can be no docility. 
Judas declared him innocent ; but innocent he could not be, had he in 

any respect deceived the disciples. 
Be accurate in all you say or do, for accuracy is important in all the 

concerns of life. 
Every law supposes the transgressor to be wicked, and indeed he is so, 

if the law is just. 

Promiscuous. 

Did you commit the same mistake that I corrected you for ? 

Let every one of them attend to his own affairs. 

The elephant which they have tamed was brought from Africa. 

That is the worst crime that could have been perpetrated. 

They who are negligent and slothful should have no aid from others. 

Solomon was the wisest man that the world ever saw. 

All that beauty, all that wealth, ever bestowed must finally pass away. 

Do unto others as you would have others do unto you. 

Thou art the man who has committed the crime, but it is I who nave 

suffered. 
The man who committed that dreadful deed was arrested by the officers. 

Rule XV.— Collective Antecedent. 

In youth, the multitude eagerly pursue pleasure, as if it were theii 

chief good. 
The council were not unanimous, and separated without any decision. 
This court is famous for the justice of its decisions. 



336 APPENDIX. 

I saw all tlie species thus delivered from their sorrows. 

A strange incident happened to the army, and put them in great conster- 
nation. 

The company has lost several of its members. 

A nation seldom duly reAvards its noblest benefactors. 

The new board of directors has elected its officers. 

The parliament will consider the matter at its next session. 

The army were eating their dinner, when it was attacked by the enemy, 
and having been defeated, a large part of it were slain. 

The convention then resolved itself into a committe of the whole. 

The crowd was so great that the judges with difficulty made their way 
through it. 

Rule XVI.— Connected Antecedents. 

Your levity and heedlessness, if they continue, will prevent all substan- 
tial improvement. 

Poverty and obscurity will oppress him only who esteems them oppressive. 

Good sense and refined policy are obvious to few, because they cannot 
be discovered but by a train of reflection. 

Avoid haughtiness of behavior, and affectation of manners ; they imply 
a want of solid merit. 

If love and unity continue, they will make you partakers of one another's 

joy- 
Suffer not jealousy and distrust to enter ; they will destroy, like a can- 
ker, every germ of friendship. 

Hatred and animosity are inconsistent with Christian charity ; guard, 
therefore, against the slightest indulgence of them. 

Every man is entitled to liberty of conscience and freedom of opinion, 
if he does not pervert them to the injury of others. 

Every plant, every flower, and every insect shows the wisdom of its 
Creator. 

Truth, and truth only, is worth seeking for its own sake. 

He and I love and obey our parents. 

You, your brother, and I must attend to our work. 

The same spirit, light, and life which enlightens, also sanctifies. 



Rule XVII.— Connected Antecedents. 

Neither Sarah, Ann, nor Jane, has performed her task. 

One or the other must relinquish his claim. 

A man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which will move 

only as it is moved. 
Rye or barley, when it is scorched, may supply the place of coffee. 
A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read it 

in a description. 
Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of life ; for it 

may be thy own lot. 
Have you seen my ox or my cow, which has strayed from the pasture ? 
Neither Sarah nor her brother Charles seemed to know his lessons ; — 

or, 
Neither Sarah seemed to know her lessons, nor her brother Charles his 
Either you must be mistaken in your opinion, or I in mine. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 337 

Rule XVIII.— Possessives. 

Note I. 

Man's chief good is an upright mind. 

I will not destroy the city for ten's sake. 

Moses's rod was turned into a serpent. 

They are wolves in sheep's clothing. 

The tree is known by its fruit. 

The privilege is not theirs any more than it is yours. 

Yet he was gentle as soft summer airs. 

Had grace for others' sins, but none for theirs. — Cowper. 

Note II. 

There is but little difference between the Earth's and Yenus's diameter. 

This hat is John's, or James's. 

The store is opposite to Morris and Company's. 

This palace has been the grand Sultan Mahomet's. 

This was the Apostle Paul's advice. 

Were Cain's occupation and Abel's the same ? 

Were Cain's and Abel's occupation the same ? 

Were Cain and Abel's occupations the same ? 

Were Cain's and Abel's parents the same ? 

Were Cain's parents and Abel's the same ? 

Was Cain and Abel's father there ? 

Were Cain and Abel's parents there ? 

Thy Maker's will has placed thee here. 
A Maker wise and good. 

Note III. 

The government of the world is not left to chance. 
He was heir to the son of Louis the Sixteenth. 
The throne we honor is the people's choice. 
We met at the house of my brother's partner. 
An account of the proceedings of Alexander's co-ir*. 

Here is a copy of the Constitution of the Teachers' Society m the City ox 
New York. 

Note IV. 

Their health perhaps may be pretty well secured. 
We all have talents committed to our charge. 
For your sake forgave I it, in the sight of Christ. 
We are, for our part, well satisfied. 
The pious cheerfully submit to their lot. 
Fools think it not worth their while to be wise. 

Note V. 

I rewarded the boy for studying so diligently. 
Have you a rule for thus parsing the participle ? 
He errs in giving the word a double construction. 
By offending others, we expose ourselves. 
They deserve our thanks for quickly relieving us. 
15 



338 APPENDIX. 

Promiscuous. 
Brown and Jones's houses will be occupied by the respective owners. 
The death of Edward the Second was a shocking one. 
I have seen neither William's nor Charles's book. 

The sayings of Socrates are recorded in the works of Plato and Xenophon. 
The poems of Horace show great genius. 
Adam was the father of Cain and Abel. 
Men's and women's shoes are made differently. 
Jones and Taylor's store was destroyed by fire. 
All good people must take this lesson to their heart. 
Queen Elizabeth mourned on account of the sad fate of Essex 

Rule XIX.— Object of the Verb. 

Thee only have I chosen. 

Whom shall we send on this errand ? 

My father allowed my brother and me to accom^Ey htm. 

Him that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 

Whom should I meet but my old friend ! 

He accosts whomsoever he meets. 

Whomsoever the court favors is safe. 

Them that honor me I will honor. 

Whom do you think I saw the other day ? 

Let you and me avoid such company. 

Note I. 
The ambitious are always seeking to aggrandize themselves. 
I must premise three circumstances. 
This society does not allow personal reflections. 
False accusation cannot diminish real merit. 
His servants ye are whom ye obey. 

Note II. 

Good keeping fattens the herd. 

We endeavored to reconcile the parties. 

Being weary he sat down. 

Go, flee away into the land of Judah. 

The popular lords did not fail to enlarge on the suhJ9c' 

Rule XX. — Object of the Preposition. 

Let that remain a secret between you and me= 

I lent the book to some one, I know not [to] whom. 

Whom did he inquire for ? Thee. 

From him that is needy turn not away. 

We are all accountable, each for his own acts. 

Does that boy know whom he is speaking to ? 

I bestow my favors on whoms<^ver I will. 

Except him and me, no one saw it. 

Rule XXL— Infinitives, 

Please to excuse my son's absence. 
Cause every man to go out from me. 
I would not have let him go. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 339 

Try to let me have the money, if you can. 

To squander one's time foolishly is a sin. 

I expected to be there in time. 

He was to have finished the work before I came. 

It is requisite to read a document carefully before signing it. 

It is better to suffer wrongfully than to be guilty of wrong. 

It is unjust so to decide the case. 

Rule XXII.— Infinitives. 

I felt a chilling sensation creep over me. 

I have heard him mention the subject. 

Bid the boys come in immediately. 

I dare say he has not got home yet. 

Let no rash promise be made. 

We sometimes see bad men honored. 

A good reader will make himself distinctly heard. 

Do you not observe it move ? 

Can I not make this matter understood ? 

Bid the officers do their duty. 

They have already been bidden to do it. 

Rule XXIII.— Subjunctive Mood. 

First Clause. 

He will maintain his cause, though he lose his estate 

They will fine thee, unless thou offer an excuse. 

I shall walk out in the afternoon, unless it rain. 

Let him take heed lest he fall. 

On condition that he come, I consent to stay. 

If he be but discreet, he will succeed. 

Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob. 

If thou cast me off, I shall be miserable. 

Send them to me, if thou please. 

Watch the door of thy lips, lest thou utter folly. 

Second Clause. 

If I were to write, he would not regard it. 

If thou felt as I do, we should soon decide. " 

Though thou shed thy blood in the cause, it would but prove thee to b€ 

sincerely a fool. 
If thou loved him, there would be more evidence of it. 
I believed, whatever were the issue, all would be well. 
If love were never feigned, it would appear to be scarce. 
There fell from his eyes, as it were scales. 
If he were an impostor, he must have been detected. 
Were death denied, all men would wish to die. 
O that there were yet a day to redress thy wrongs ! 
Though thou wert huge as Atlas, thy efforts would be vain. 

Last Clause. 

Though he seems to be artless, he has deceived us. 
If he is defeated, he has not given up all hope. 
Though this event is strange, it certainly did happen. 



340 APPENDIX. 

If thou lovest tranquillity of mind, why engage in disputes ? 

If seasons of idleness are dangerous, what must a continued habit of it 

prove ? 
Though he was a son, yet learned he obedience by the things which he 

suffered. 
I knew thou wast not slow to hear. 



Rule XXIV.— Independent Case. 

I being young, they deceived me. 

They refusing to comply, I withdrew. 

Thou being present, he would not tell what he knew. 

The child is lost ; and I, whither shall I go ? 

O happy we ! surrounded thus with blessings ! 

" Thou too ! Brutus, my son ! " cried Caesar overcome. 

But he, the chieftain of them all, 

His sword hangs rusting on the wall. — Scott. 

She quick relapsing to her former state, 
With boding fears approach the serving train. 

There all thy gifts and graces we display, 
Thou, only thou, directing all our way. — Pope. 



Rule XXV.— Conjunctions. 
Note I. 

He has made alterations in the work, and additions to it. 

He is more bold than his companion, but not so wise. 

Sincerity is as valuable as knowledge, and even more so. 

I always have been, and I always shall be, of this opinion. 

What is now kept secret shall be hereafter displayed and seen in the 

clearest light. 
We pervert the noble faculty of speech, when we use it to defame or to 

disquiet our neighbors. 
Be more anxious to acquire knowledge, than to show it. 
The court of chancery frequently mitigates and disarms the common 

law. 

Note II. 

We were apprehensive that some accident had happened. 

I do not deny that he has merit. 

Are you afraid that he will forget you ? 

These paths and bow'rs, doubt not that our joint hands 
Will keep from wilderness. 

Note III 

It was no other than his own father. 

Have you no further proof than this ? 

I expected something more than this. 

He no sooner retires than his heart burns with devotion. 

Such literary filching is nothing else than robbery. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 341 



Note TV. 



Neither despise nor oppose what you do not understand. 

He would neither do it himself nor let me do it. 

The majesty of good things is such, that the confines of them are reverend. 

Whether he intends to do so or not, I cannot tell. 

Send me such articles only as are adapted to this market. 

So far as I am able to judge, the hook is well written. 

No errors are so trivial as not to deserve correction. 

It will neither improve the mind nor delight the fancy. 

The one is as deserving as the other. 

There is no condition so secure that it cannot admit of change. 

Do you think this is as good as that ? 

The relations are so obscure that they require much thought. 

None is so fierce as to dare stir him up. 

There was no man so sanguine as not to apprehend some ill consequence. 

I must be so candid as to own that I do not understand it. 

The book is not so well printed as it ought to be. 

As still he sat as those who wait, 

Till judgment speak the doom of fate. 



Promiscuous Examples Corrected. 

Lesson I. 

There is a spirit in man, and the inspiration of the Almighty giveth 
him understanding. 

My people do not consider. 

I have never heard whom they invited. 

Then hasten thy return ; for, thou away, 
Nor luster has the sun, nor joy the day. 

I am as well as when you were here. 

That elderly man, him that came in late, I supposed to be the superin- 
tendent. 

All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers, but 
their follies and vices are innumerable. 

It must indeed be confessed that a lampoon or a satire does not carry in 
it robbery or murder. 

There were more persons than one engaged in this affair. 

A man who lacks ceremony has need of great merit. 

A wise man avoids the showing of any excellence in trifles. Better : 
forbears to show — or, is careful not to show, etc. 

The first and most important quality in a woman is sweetness of temper. 

We choose rather to lead than to follow. 

Ignorance is the mother of fear, as well as of admiration 

He must fear many, whom many fear. 

Every one partakes of honor bestowed on the worthy. 

Neither the king nor the queen was at all deceived. 

Were there no difference, there would be no choice. 

I would rather have been informed. 

Must thou return this evening ? 

Life and death are in the power of the tongue. 

J saw a person that I took to be her. 



342 APPENDIX. 

Let him be who he may, I shall not stop. 

This is certainly a useful invention. 

That such a spirit as thou does not understand me. 

" It is no more than justice," quoth the farmer. 

Lesson II. 

Great improvements have been made. 

What I have heard is undoubtedly true. 

The nation is torn by feuds which threaten its ruin. 

The account of these transactions was incorrect. 

Godliness with contentment is great gain. 

The number of sufferers has not been ascertained. 

There is one or more of them yet in confinement. 

They have chosen the wisest part. 

He spent his whole life in doing good. 

They scarcely know that temperance is a virtue. 

I am afraid that I have labored in vain. 

Mischief on itself doth back recoil. 

This construction sounds rather harsh. 

What is the cause of the leaves' curling ? 

Was it thou that made the noise ? 

Let thy flock clothe the naked. 

Wisdom and knowledge are granted unto thee. 

His conduct was surprisingly strange. 

This woman taught my brother and me to read. 

Let your promises be such as you can perform. 

We shall sell them in the state in which they now are. 

We may, however, add this observation. 

This came into fashion when I was young. 

I did not use the leaves but the root of the plant. 

We have continually used every means in our power. 

Pass ye away, ye inhabitants of Saphir; — or, Pass away, thou inhabitant 

of Saphir. 
Give every syllable and every letter its proper sound. 

Lesson III. 

To know exactly how much mischief may be ventured upon with im- 
punity, is knowledge enough for some folks. 

Every leaf and every twig teems with life. 

I rejoiced at this intelligence. 

I was afraid that I should lose the parcel. 

Which of all these patterns is the prettiest ? 

They that [or who] despise instruction shall not be wise. 

Both thou and thy advisers have mistaken your interest. 

An idle soul shall suffer hunger. 

The lips of knowledge are a precious jewel. 

My cousin and I are requested to attend. 

I can only say that such is my belief. 

This is different from the conscience' being made to feel. 

Here is ground for their leaving of the world with peace — or (better), 
Here is ground for leaving the world with peace. 

Man is the noblest work of creation. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 343 

Of all crimes, willful murder is the most atrocious. 

The tribes that I visited are partially civilized. 

Hence I conclude that they are in error. 

The girls' books are neater than the boys'. 

I intended to transcribe it. 

Shall a character made up of the very worst passions, pass unaer trie 

name of gentleman ? 
Rhoda ran in, and told that Peter stood before the gate. 
What are latitude and longitude ? 
Cicero was more eloquent than any other Roman; — or, Cicero was the 

most eloquent of the Romans. 
Who dares apologize for Pizarro, — which is but another name for 

rapacity ? 

.--... Lesson IV. 

Tell me whether you will do it or not. 

After the straitest [or, strictest] sect, I lived a Pharisee. 

We have no more than five loaves and two fishes. 

I know not who it was that did it. 

Doubt not, little though there be, 
That I'll cast a crumb to thee. 
This rule is the best that can be given. 
I have never seen any other way. 

These are poor amends for the men and treasures that we have lost. 
Do you know those boys ? 

This is a part of the estate of my uncle's father. 
Many people never learn to speak correctly. 
Some people are rash, and others timid ; these apprehend too much, 

those too little. 
Is it lawful for us to give tribute to Caesar or not ? 
It was not worth while to preserve any permanent enmity. 
I no sooner saw my face in it than I was startled at the shortness of it. 
Every person is answerable for his own conduct. 
They are men that scorn a mean action, and that will exert themselves 

to serve you. 
I do not recollect ever to have paid it — the paying of it — the payment 

of it — or, that I ever paid it. 
The stoics taught that all crimes are equal. 
Every one of these theories is now exploded. 
Any of these four will answer. 

There is no situation in which he would be happy. 
The boy that you thought so clever has been detected in stealing. 
I will meet thee there if thou please. 
He is not so sick but that he can laugh. 
These clothes do not fit me. 
The audience were all very attentive. 

Wert thou some star which from the ruin'd roof 
Of shak'd Olympus by mischance did fall ! 

Lesson Y. 

Was the master, or were many of the scholars, in the room ? 
His father and mother's consent was asked. 
Who is he supposed to be ? 



344 appendix. 

He is a venerable old man. 

It was then m} r purpose to visit Sicily. 

It is only to the learner, and him that is in doubt, that this assistance is 
recommended. 

There is not the least hope of his recovery. 

Anger and impatience are always unreasonable. 

In his letters there is not only correctness, but elegance. 

Opportunity to do good is the highest preferment that a noble mind 
desires. 

The year in which he died is not mentioned. 

Had I known it, I should not have gone. 

Was it thou that spoke to me ? 

The house is pleasantly situated. 

He did it as privately as he possibly could. 

To subdue our passions — The subduing of our passions — or, The subjuga- 
tion of our passions— is the noblest of conquests. 

James is more diligent than thou. 

Words interwoven with sighs found out their way. 

He appears to be excessively diffident. 

The number of our days is with thee. 

As a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth them that fear him. 

The circumstances of this case are different. 

Well for us, if some other such men should rise ! 

A man that is young in years may be old in hours, if he lose no time. 

The chief captain, fearing that Paul would be pulled into pieces by 
them, commanded the soldiers to go down, and to take him by force 
from among them. 

Nay, weep not, gentle Eros ; there are left us 
Ourselves to end ourselves. 



Corrections under the General Rule. 

Are there, then, more true religions than one ? 

The laws of Lycurgus but substituted insensibility for enjoyment. 

Rain is seldom or never seen at Lima. 

The young bird raising its open mouth for food exhibits a natural indi- 
cation of corporeal want. 

There is much truth in Ascham's observation. 

Adopting the doctrine in which he had been taught; — or, Adopting the 
doctrine which had been taught him. 

This library contained more than five hundred thousand volumes. 

The Coptic alphabet was one of the latest that were formed. 

There are many evidences of men's proneness to vice. 

To perceive nothing, and not to perceive, are the same ; — or, To perceive 
nothing is the same as not to perceive. 

The king of France or of England was to be the umpire. 

He may be said to have saved the life of a citizen ; and, consequently 
he is entitled [or, to be entitled] to the reward. 

The men had made inquiry for Simon's house, and were standing before 
the gate. 

Give no more trouble than you cannot possibly help. 

That the art of printing was then unknown, was a circumstance in some 
respects favorable to the freedom of the pen. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 345 

Another passion which the present age is apt to run into, is a desire to 

make children learn all things. 
He who possesses the least worth of his own, is always the severest 

censor of the defects of another. 
Nor was Philip wanting in his endeavors to corrupt Demosthenes, as he 

had corrupted most of the leading men in Greece. 
The Greeks, fearing to be surrounded, wheeled about and halted, with 

the river behind them. 
Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon the supplying of our wants ; 

and riches, upon the enjoying of our superfluities. 
To obtain a correct style requires but few talents beyond those to which 
most men are born, or which they may, at least, acquire. 
That brother should not war with brother, 
Nor one despise and grieve an other. 
Siich is the refuge of our youth and age ; 
At first from hope, at last from vacancy ; — or, 
Such is the refuge of our youth and age ; 
Of that from hope, of this from vacancy. 
Triumphant Sylla ! couldst thou then divine, 
By aught but Romans Rome should thus be laid f 



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